1. Introduction
2. Theoretical section:
2.1.1 Development communication: Tracing its roots
2.1.2 How to define it?
2.1.3 The strategies of development communication
2.1.4 Media versus face-to-face
2.2 Analysing the research questions:
2.2.1 What are the reasons for success or failure of communication for development?
2.2.2 What can be done to make it more effective?
2.2.3 What is the influence of the cultural context? How can media campaign be used to realize the objective of development communication?
3. Empirical section:
3.1.1 What research methodology has been followed and why?
3.1.2 Rationale behind the choice of TCG and the questionnaire
3.1.3 TCG: Tracing its roots
3.1.4 Media versus face-to-face
3.2 Re-analysing the research questions:
3.2.1 What are the reasons for the success or failure of communication for development?
3.2.2 What can be done to make it more effective?
3.2.3 What is the influence of the cultural context? How can media campaign be used to realize the objective of development communication?
3.3 What can be an effective communication policy for TCG?
4. Summary, conclusions and future research
5. Bibliography
6.1 Appendix I
6.2 Appendix II
6.3 Appendix III
Monday, 9 February 2009
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In preparing this dissertation, I acknowledge my indebtedness to the following: My supervisor Dr Katrin Voltmer for her invaluable guidance; to Ms Angharad Thomas without whose help it would have been very difficult to obtain data for the empirical study; to the respondents for bearing with me during the interview; to the staff of the Edward Boyle Library and the Brotherton Library for retrieving the relevant books for me; to my family members for their constant encouragement; to my friends for their support; and to numerous other people for helping me in their own ways from time to time.
1. INTRODUCTION
CASE I:
USAID (US Agency for International Development) had implemented the ABC programme to prevent or reduce sexual transmission of the AIDS virus in the developing countries [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A13501-2004Jun28.html, http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/aids/News/abcfactsheet.html]. ‘A’ stood for ‘Abstinence’ (or delayed sexual initiation among youth), ‘B’ for ‘Being faithful’ (or reduction in number of sexual partners), and ‘C’ for correct and consistent ‘Condom use’ for casual sexual activity and other high-risk situations. But the project was not successful in the developing countries of Asia, such as India [Report of Ministry of Health, Government of India, 2004].
In fact, in such countries women tend to have less control over their sexual lives, and sexual exploitation of women often go unreported. Under such circumstances, firstly, if a woman exercises abstinence, she would be raped by her husband, would be abandoned by him or he would go outside the wedlock to satisfy his needs. So, how does ‘A’ work for her? Secondly, how do messages on monogamy help to protect themselves? She might be faithful to her husband, but what if he contracts HIV viruses through unsafe sex outside the wedlock and passes it on to her? So, how does ‘B’ work for her? Thirdly, if her husband refuses to use protection, what can she possibly do? Do we have a feminine equivalent of condom that is readily available and affordable in the market? So, how does ‘C’ work for her?
CASE II:
As per official statistics, a large percentage of HIV/AIDS patients in India acquire the virus through unprotected sex. So, the IISD (Institute of International Social Development), with support from West Bengal AIDS Control Society, had launched a programme to offer sex-workers in Calcutta, India, an ancient solution to modern concerns about safe sex. They were taught from the Kama Sutra to ensure maximum client satisfaction without consummation, thus preventing the contraction of HIV/AIDS. Thereafter, a powerful association, called Durbar Mahila Samannoy Samity, was formed with the decree that all its members should perform safe sex and customers refusing will not be entertained [http://ethnodata.com/content.php?id=14, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3133947.stm].
The response to the workshop was remarkable and it ended up being the first sex-workers’ forum in the world. Since then, thousands of Calcutta's sex-workers have successfully applied the message conveyed at these workshops into practice.
In both the case studies, there is an attempt to control the spread of HIV/AIDS through sexual transmission. While the project failed in the first instance, it was successful in the second. The reason lies in the correct choice of communications strategy — in the former the strategy was too general for the receiving population, whereas in the latter it was modified to suit the requirements of the target group.
This dissertation aims to find out the objectives, strategies and outcomes of communication for development; thus establishing its efficacy in the development sector. The research questions that will be addressed through the work comprise:
• What are the reasons for the success and failure of communication for development?
• How can it be made more effective?
• What is the influence of the cultural context?
• How can media campaign be used to realize the objective of development communication?
The entire research has been divided into two sections: the theoretical and the empirical. In the theoretical section, existing literature on this field of study has been reviewed as per a few specific dimensions. These include: the origin of the concept of development communication; how to define it; the three basic strategies of development communication, along with their advantages and disadvantages. Thereafter, there is a section on media versus face-to-face communication to adjudge the best strategy. This is followed by a critical discussion of the research questions.
In the empirical section, The Cardiff Group (TCG) has been chosen as the case study — a newly-launched organization dealing with design and development. After tracing the origins of the Group, the interview respondents’ — comprising both the founder-members of TCG as well as professionals from the development sector — opinion on the best communications strategy has been analyzed. They were also asked whether they would identify particular strategies with particular projects. Following this, the research questions have been re-analysed in keeping with the respondents’ replies. It concludes with the recommendation of an effective communication policy for The Cardiff Group.
The research methods used for this study include critical evaluation of existing literature and semi-structured interview. Thus, both primary and secondary data have been used.
USAID (US Agency for International Development) had implemented the ABC programme to prevent or reduce sexual transmission of the AIDS virus in the developing countries [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A13501-2004Jun28.html, http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/aids/News/abcfactsheet.html]. ‘A’ stood for ‘Abstinence’ (or delayed sexual initiation among youth), ‘B’ for ‘Being faithful’ (or reduction in number of sexual partners), and ‘C’ for correct and consistent ‘Condom use’ for casual sexual activity and other high-risk situations. But the project was not successful in the developing countries of Asia, such as India [Report of Ministry of Health, Government of India, 2004].
In fact, in such countries women tend to have less control over their sexual lives, and sexual exploitation of women often go unreported. Under such circumstances, firstly, if a woman exercises abstinence, she would be raped by her husband, would be abandoned by him or he would go outside the wedlock to satisfy his needs. So, how does ‘A’ work for her? Secondly, how do messages on monogamy help to protect themselves? She might be faithful to her husband, but what if he contracts HIV viruses through unsafe sex outside the wedlock and passes it on to her? So, how does ‘B’ work for her? Thirdly, if her husband refuses to use protection, what can she possibly do? Do we have a feminine equivalent of condom that is readily available and affordable in the market? So, how does ‘C’ work for her?
CASE II:
As per official statistics, a large percentage of HIV/AIDS patients in India acquire the virus through unprotected sex. So, the IISD (Institute of International Social Development), with support from West Bengal AIDS Control Society, had launched a programme to offer sex-workers in Calcutta, India, an ancient solution to modern concerns about safe sex. They were taught from the Kama Sutra to ensure maximum client satisfaction without consummation, thus preventing the contraction of HIV/AIDS. Thereafter, a powerful association, called Durbar Mahila Samannoy Samity, was formed with the decree that all its members should perform safe sex and customers refusing will not be entertained [http://ethnodata.com/content.php?id=14, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3133947.stm].
The response to the workshop was remarkable and it ended up being the first sex-workers’ forum in the world. Since then, thousands of Calcutta's sex-workers have successfully applied the message conveyed at these workshops into practice.
In both the case studies, there is an attempt to control the spread of HIV/AIDS through sexual transmission. While the project failed in the first instance, it was successful in the second. The reason lies in the correct choice of communications strategy — in the former the strategy was too general for the receiving population, whereas in the latter it was modified to suit the requirements of the target group.
This dissertation aims to find out the objectives, strategies and outcomes of communication for development; thus establishing its efficacy in the development sector. The research questions that will be addressed through the work comprise:
• What are the reasons for the success and failure of communication for development?
• How can it be made more effective?
• What is the influence of the cultural context?
• How can media campaign be used to realize the objective of development communication?
The entire research has been divided into two sections: the theoretical and the empirical. In the theoretical section, existing literature on this field of study has been reviewed as per a few specific dimensions. These include: the origin of the concept of development communication; how to define it; the three basic strategies of development communication, along with their advantages and disadvantages. Thereafter, there is a section on media versus face-to-face communication to adjudge the best strategy. This is followed by a critical discussion of the research questions.
In the empirical section, The Cardiff Group (TCG) has been chosen as the case study — a newly-launched organization dealing with design and development. After tracing the origins of the Group, the interview respondents’ — comprising both the founder-members of TCG as well as professionals from the development sector — opinion on the best communications strategy has been analyzed. They were also asked whether they would identify particular strategies with particular projects. Following this, the research questions have been re-analysed in keeping with the respondents’ replies. It concludes with the recommendation of an effective communication policy for The Cardiff Group.
The research methods used for this study include critical evaluation of existing literature and semi-structured interview. Thus, both primary and secondary data have been used.
2. THEORETICAL SECTION
2.1.1 DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION: TRACING ITS ROOTS
To understand any concept, it is important to trace its origin and development. Similarly, in the planning of development communication, the process of public campaigning can be considered to be the very first step.
“Public communication campaigns are purposive attempts to inform, persuade, or motivate behaviour changes in a relatively well-defined and large audience, generally for non-commercial benefits to the individuals and/ or society at large, typically within a given time period, by means of organised communication activities involving mass media and often complemented by interpersonal support” [Rice and Atkin 1989; adapted from Rogers and Storey 1987, as quoted by Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 101].
When such campaigns are aimed at bringing about social and economic improvements, usually in developing countries, they constitute development communication.
It was the apparent success of World War II propaganda — facilitated to a large extent by the mass media — that prompted theorists like Wilbur Schramm and Daniel Lerner to place high hopes on the potential of radio and television to bring about dramatic progress in the world’s most disadvantaged countries [Paterson].
Thus, the field of development communication that emerged in the late 1950s came to believe that mass media could bring a desire to ‘modernize’, by promoting education, essential skills and social unity [Ibid]. Theorists such as Lerner suggested that “exposure to Western media would create ‘empathy’ for modern culture, and a desire to move from traditional to modern ways” [Ibid]. Thus, the approach advocated a capitalist way of life.
But, there were several drawbacks to this approach. It equated modernisation to Westernisation. It also assumed development to be a top-down process facilitated by a centralized mass media. But, the “producers of development media often failed to ask if the audience can receive the message (television penetration in developing countries is minimal and radio penetration in the early days of development communication was light), understand the message (a problem in countries with dozens of languages and dialects), act upon the message (with the necessary tools or other forms of structural support), and want to act upon the message” [Ibid]. Besides, being based on the propaganda model, all efforts at development were seen as propaganda and distrusted.
In the 1970s and 1980s, a new paradigm developed. It realised that the underdeveloped countries were a product of colonialism, and the diverse cultures, ideologies and political considerations required endless varieties of ways to be communicated with. In keeping with this strategy, educational television, satellite television and VCRs developed as part of the communication system.
It did bring about some changes in beliefs and behaviours and with it came a surge of non-profit non-governmental organisations to work on developmental projects worldwide using UN, government or private funding. They worked on three basic development campaigns: “Persuasion, changing what people do; Education, changing social values; and Informing, empowering people to change by increasing knowledge” [Ibid].
Of these, the third concept is now perceived to be the most useful, because it aims to reduce inequality by involving the poorest sections of society in their own development. In this new approach, communication has become “an important catalyst for change, but not its cause” [Ibid]. Besides using television (for example, the telenovela in Brazil) to disseminate pro-social messages, it also makes use of the local folk media, community newspapers and radio.
Thus, the concept of development communication that originated with an idealistic approach has, with the passing years, become more and more practical. Today, if such a communication policy is implemented keeping all the parameters in mind, it can well be successful.
To understand any concept, it is important to trace its origin and development. Similarly, in the planning of development communication, the process of public campaigning can be considered to be the very first step.
“Public communication campaigns are purposive attempts to inform, persuade, or motivate behaviour changes in a relatively well-defined and large audience, generally for non-commercial benefits to the individuals and/ or society at large, typically within a given time period, by means of organised communication activities involving mass media and often complemented by interpersonal support” [Rice and Atkin 1989; adapted from Rogers and Storey 1987, as quoted by Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 101].
When such campaigns are aimed at bringing about social and economic improvements, usually in developing countries, they constitute development communication.
It was the apparent success of World War II propaganda — facilitated to a large extent by the mass media — that prompted theorists like Wilbur Schramm and Daniel Lerner to place high hopes on the potential of radio and television to bring about dramatic progress in the world’s most disadvantaged countries [Paterson].
Thus, the field of development communication that emerged in the late 1950s came to believe that mass media could bring a desire to ‘modernize’, by promoting education, essential skills and social unity [Ibid]. Theorists such as Lerner suggested that “exposure to Western media would create ‘empathy’ for modern culture, and a desire to move from traditional to modern ways” [Ibid]. Thus, the approach advocated a capitalist way of life.
But, there were several drawbacks to this approach. It equated modernisation to Westernisation. It also assumed development to be a top-down process facilitated by a centralized mass media. But, the “producers of development media often failed to ask if the audience can receive the message (television penetration in developing countries is minimal and radio penetration in the early days of development communication was light), understand the message (a problem in countries with dozens of languages and dialects), act upon the message (with the necessary tools or other forms of structural support), and want to act upon the message” [Ibid]. Besides, being based on the propaganda model, all efforts at development were seen as propaganda and distrusted.
In the 1970s and 1980s, a new paradigm developed. It realised that the underdeveloped countries were a product of colonialism, and the diverse cultures, ideologies and political considerations required endless varieties of ways to be communicated with. In keeping with this strategy, educational television, satellite television and VCRs developed as part of the communication system.
It did bring about some changes in beliefs and behaviours and with it came a surge of non-profit non-governmental organisations to work on developmental projects worldwide using UN, government or private funding. They worked on three basic development campaigns: “Persuasion, changing what people do; Education, changing social values; and Informing, empowering people to change by increasing knowledge” [Ibid].
Of these, the third concept is now perceived to be the most useful, because it aims to reduce inequality by involving the poorest sections of society in their own development. In this new approach, communication has become “an important catalyst for change, but not its cause” [Ibid]. Besides using television (for example, the telenovela in Brazil) to disseminate pro-social messages, it also makes use of the local folk media, community newspapers and radio.
Thus, the concept of development communication that originated with an idealistic approach has, with the passing years, become more and more practical. Today, if such a communication policy is implemented keeping all the parameters in mind, it can well be successful.
2.1.2 HOW TO DEFINE IT?
The concept of development communication has been defined in very many ways:
Isang Bagsak has defined it as an “instrument in development projects… to spread information and contribute to behaviour change” by improving “opportunities for community dialogue and access to information”, thus ensuring citizens’ “participation in political communities” [www.comminit.com/planningmodels/pmodels/planningmodels-55.html].
It has also been defined as a “process of identifying, segmenting and targeting specific groups and audiences with particular strategies, messages and training programmes through various mass media and interpersonal channels, traditional and non-traditional” [McKee 1992, as quoted in ibid].
Rockefeller Foundation [2000, as quoted in ibid], however, has defined development communication as “a process of dialogue, information sharing, mutual understanding and agreement, and collective action”.
Another definition is that “development communication is a branch of communication theory or practice that is concerned with applying insights from communication theory to address problems of development and modernization” [http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Development%20communication]. It aims “to find strategies for mobilizing people, and consequently resources, for developmental goals” [Ibid].
Whereas, the World Bank defines it as a process that “involves creating mechanisms to broaden public access to information on reforms; strengthening clients' ability to listen to their constituencies and negotiate with stakeholders; empowering grassroots organizations to achieve a more participatory process; and undertaking communications activities that are grounded in public opinion research” [www.worldbank.org/developmentcommunications/].
Thus, the objectives of development communication can be summarized as follows:
• It communicates messages with a developmental goal
• It hopes to bring about reforms for the betterment of the public at large
• The message communicated is not only supposed to affect the people but also change their behaviour in a certain way
• It improves public access to information and resources
• It also improves community dialogue and mobilizes people to share information. This would bring about harmony and peace in the society
• It ensures political participation
• It empowers the grassroots to participate in activities that affect the society
• All the message communicated are grounded in public opinion research
Isang Bagsak has defined it as an “instrument in development projects… to spread information and contribute to behaviour change” by improving “opportunities for community dialogue and access to information”, thus ensuring citizens’ “participation in political communities” [www.comminit.com/planningmodels/pmodels/planningmodels-55.html].
It has also been defined as a “process of identifying, segmenting and targeting specific groups and audiences with particular strategies, messages and training programmes through various mass media and interpersonal channels, traditional and non-traditional” [McKee 1992, as quoted in ibid].
Rockefeller Foundation [2000, as quoted in ibid], however, has defined development communication as “a process of dialogue, information sharing, mutual understanding and agreement, and collective action”.
Another definition is that “development communication is a branch of communication theory or practice that is concerned with applying insights from communication theory to address problems of development and modernization” [http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Development%20communication]. It aims “to find strategies for mobilizing people, and consequently resources, for developmental goals” [Ibid].
Whereas, the World Bank defines it as a process that “involves creating mechanisms to broaden public access to information on reforms; strengthening clients' ability to listen to their constituencies and negotiate with stakeholders; empowering grassroots organizations to achieve a more participatory process; and undertaking communications activities that are grounded in public opinion research” [www.worldbank.org/developmentcommunications/].
Thus, the objectives of development communication can be summarized as follows:
• It communicates messages with a developmental goal
• It hopes to bring about reforms for the betterment of the public at large
• The message communicated is not only supposed to affect the people but also change their behaviour in a certain way
• It improves public access to information and resources
• It also improves community dialogue and mobilizes people to share information. This would bring about harmony and peace in the society
• It ensures political participation
• It empowers the grassroots to participate in activities that affect the society
• All the message communicated are grounded in public opinion research
2.1.3 THE STRATEGIES OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION
By analysing these definitions, we can arrive at three main strategies of development communication, namely the mass media, the popular media — also referred to jointly as the diffusion method [Morris, 2003:225] — and the participatory method that involves face-to-face communication. Here is a brief discussion on them to help us understand their advantages and disadvantages.
1) The mass media is one of the best strategies of propaganda and gradual persuasion. Deriving from a cognitive-neoassociationistic perspective [Anderson & Bower, 1973; Landman & Manis, 1983; as quoted by Bryant and Zillmann, 1994: 45], we can say that when people watch, read or hear about an event through the mass media, similar ideas are activated in them which “in turn can activate other semantically related ideas and actions” [Ibid]. In that sense, the potential of the mass media is immense.
As such, every year millions of resources are spent on campaigns to change attitudes of people in the desired direction – the issues could be as varied as political candidates and consumer products to health and safety practices, and charitable causes. The ultimate aim is to influence people’s behaviour so that they will vote for certain politicians or referenda, purchase specific goods, engage in safer eating and sexual activities, and donate money to various religious, environmental and educational organisations and institutions [Ibid: 91].
This can again be achieved in two ways: firstly, through widespread propaganda which has a direct effect on the attitude and behaviour of the recipients. But, very few social scientists today will credit mass media with such persuasive powers, even though the technological advances in the last few years have been unprecedented. This is because the audience has also become more discerning than ever before. So, the other way of achieving it is through the indirect method where the media influences the opinion leaders who in turn mingle with the masses to bring about changes in their behaviour [Ibid: 92].
McQuail [2000: 432-433] has come up with four models of influence: information processing, conditioning or associational, functional, and relational. The relational model focuses on the relationship between the sender and the receiver of the message, which is basically governed by power. The two must cooperate in this power relationship if influence is to succeed. People tend to reject power, so there must be sufficient motivation to cooperate.
Kelman suggests three basic processes of influence: compliance, identification and internalisation. He also emphasises that this relational model of influence is not power-oriented. However, McQuail feels that it’s the persuader’s task to convince the persuadee that acquisition of some product or behaviour can earn him social approval and acceptance. In this sense, a power relationship does seem to exist. And, it is a fact that the mass media, through commercials and popular programmes, tends to establish this kind of relationship with its audience [Ibid and Reardon, 1991: 176-7].
To achieve identification and subsequent compliance, here’s an interesting observation by Burnkrant and Unnava [1989, as quoted by Bryant and Zillmann, 1994: 103]. They found a message that frames its pronouns in the second person (for example, ‘you’) and not in the third person (that is, ‘one’ or ‘he’ and ‘she’), is more efficient in increasing personal involvement and processing of the information conveyed. And, this is the only way mass media can bring about enduring changes in attitudes and behaviours of the recipients. Here, Bryant and Zillmann [Ibid: 102] mentions the concept of “perceived personal relevance of the communication” which enhances interest and consequent internalisation of the media message.
However, there are certain drawbacks to the mass media as a tool of propaganda and persuasion. It is commonly believed that since the same programmes are available to all the people in the country at the same time, similar experiences are interpreted in similar ways by the audience. Reardon [1991: 172], in fact, considers the watching of television to be “one of the few social influence processes that appears to lend itself neatly to cause-effect explanations”. But, this assumption could be erroneous, in the sense that the reception power of the audience might vary with age and upbringing.
It reminds one of the famous saying that you can take a horse near the water, but you cannot make it drink. Similarly, one can persuade a person to watch/ hear a particular programme, but it is not always possible to motivate him to think about the message conveyed. This is because the recipient might consider the information to be irrelevant and react unfavourably or just discard it. Even if there are apparent attitudinal changes, they might be based on superficial interpretation of the messages as opposed to elaborate processing of the message. Another reason could be that the person concerned lacks necessary skills to translate the internalised attitudes into actions because of certain social constraints.
But the most important note of caution is that although the mass media can respond to the needs of the people, at the end of the day they are money-making enterprises selling what gets them revenue. As such, their messages are seldom accepted uncritically by the discerning audience.
2) Comprising basically performing arts, the popular media is an important tool for communication in support of development. It engages in the strategy of blatant propaganda and persuasion that the concerned recipients can relate to more easily than that of the mass media.
In the last few decades, a special type of popular theatre has developed called ‘theatre for development’ wherein the workshop participants are not only trained in dramatisation but also in basic sociological techniques. “This enables them to draw up an inventory of local community problems. In each play, one problem theme is explored by and for the local community” [Boeren and Epskamp, 1992: 8].
To respond to the need for development, performing arts are used for disseminating information on government ideology and programmes, as also convincing people to accept the ideas of modernisation. In the rural areas, it is used as a participatory and confidence-building tool that not only teaches the latest technology to the farmers, but also makes them literate and promotes community education [Ibid: 112].
These campaigns can either be (a) mobile in which the government hires professional troupes to tour as many villages as possible to publicise “government ideology and development programmes”. They operate on massive scales. For example, the Indian song-and-drama troupes are estimated to give 20,000 performances a year. (b) There can be another type of campaign for mobilisation. In this, large numbers of locally-based theatre troupes are encouraged to enact plays in their own areas “on national development policies or programmes” [Ibid: 113].
Besides the programmes on government initiatives that operate within a conventional framework, there is another category of “change-oriented theatre” that performs on non-governmental initiatives. These groups “aim at contributing to a process of structural transformation by movements of agricultural labourers, marginal farmers, migrant workers, urban squatters, and other marginalised groups”. Here, the popular media helps to educate and organise the deprived population to defend themselves against victimization and gradually transform the existing power structure [Ibid: 118].
Therefore, it seems, the efficacy of the popular media is theoretically more pronounced than that of the mass media. This is because the theatre groups engaging in impromptu street plays and road shows, reach a more targeted audience with a specific message. Moreover, they have no profit-making motives and that make their strategies more objective. However, this strategy may suffer from the same limitation of motivating the audience to process and internalise the message conveyed. Whatever changes in attitude might be evident could be superficial and temporary. Besides, as Boeren puts it [Ibid: 49], popular theatre comprises an expensive affair involving a group of people over a considerable period of time. So, the campaign costs are often too prohibitive to adopt. Again, although the actors use local idioms in the play, theatre for development does amount to external intervention and the benefits of the message conveyed, seldom reach the marginal sections of the society.
3) Participatory communication has been defined as a process that “solicits the involvement of the people to shape their own development, addressing the problems they have identified and providing solutions that are feasible to them” [Boeren and Epskamp, 1992: 57].
This strategy was born in reaction to the deliberate modernisation propagated by the developed West. As Uphoff [1985; as quoted by Yoon in http://www. southbound.com.my/communication/parcom.htm] puts it, there are four ways in which participation can be ensured in a communication campaign.
Firstly, through participation in implementation where people are encouraged to take up certain responsibilities and are required to contribute specific resources. Secondly, through participation in evaluation when upon completion of the project, the target population is asked to critically analyse its success and failure. Thirdly, they can participate in the benefits of the project; for example, by drawing drinking-water from the hand-pump. Fourthly, by participating in the decision-making, whereby people plan the activities that they will do as a community and discuss the pros and cons of a particular project. For example, the target group could decide whether to construct a school building or not.
While some development campaigns provide people with all these opportunities, others restrict it to one or two ways. It is argued that participation in decision-making is the most important form to promote as it gives people an opportunity to control their lives and environment, along with acquiring problem-solving skills. The other three forms of participation are considered to encourage pseudo-participation as people can easily be manipulated to accept plans made by other more powerful people. But there are others who argue that these three ways allow people “to build-up capacity to participate in decision-making”. They feel that “prematurely mobilizing people to make their own decisions and chart their own development can put the people at risk of conflict with powerful interests and jeopardize their safety” [Ibid]. Another reason put forth by some Asian countries against the Western concept of people’s participation, is that the target population should be educated before they are allowed to take decisions from a diversity of views. Otherwise, they might find it difficult to come to a consensus and it could lead to a conflict situation.
As such, participatory communication cannot be regarded as a “panacea for development” [Ibid]; they are not always suitable for solving all problems in all situations. It can be considered to be the best strategy that has the potential to involve people to pursue their aspirations, but it has limited influence on people’s commitment because whether people want to or can participate in developmental projects depend solely on the situations they live in. For example, a mother with a terminally ill child cannot be expected to take interest in such projects.
Although the participatory strategy is a bottom-up approach that makes people self-reliant, it also presupposes that the rural population cooperates with each other to pursue their common interest. But, in reality, it often leads to total chaos and conflict due to a lack of consensus in decision-making. This democratic dilemma brings us to Jurgen Habermas’ concepts of the ‘public sphere’ and the ‘ideal speech’. As Escobar [1995; as quoted by Jacobson and Storey, 2004: 101] points out: the universalism of these concepts “under-emphasizes the plurality of human experience and applauds as social progress the abandonment of tradition in the Third World”.
The communicative action that takes place in an “ideal speech situation”, assumes that all participants contribute to the discussion equally [Habermas, as quoted in Ibid: 103]. Yet, in reality, it is the one who argues better persuades the rest; and, a logical argument can involve deception. This theory can also be applied to cultural change and loss of identity — the potential outcomes of the participatory method of communication.
Again, the concepts of "participation" and "manipulation" can be interpreted from many perspectives. An interventionist, who attempts to impose his own decisions on the target population, also brings with him a whole set of “alien cultural premises”. On the other hand, the communicator of the message may enter a village with a particular “picture of reality and set of values” in mind. And, he might even expect the people to see their plight in just the same way as he or she sees it. This can be interpreted as manipulation as well.
Another drawback that is often overlooked is the price that people have to pay for taking part in participatory processes. “It is often assumed that the villager has nothing better to do with his or her time. For every hour spent ‘participating’ there is an opportunity cost; that is, the fact that the villager may be foregoing more productive activity if the participatory process does not lead to benefits, either in the long or short term” [Ibid].
The greatest drawback of this strategy is, perhaps, the fact that the communicator is totally alien to the conditions of the target population. Doing a research on a certain community from afar and spending a few months with them does not ensure a proper understanding of the living conditions and culture of the people. As such, the best way of going about with this strategy is to allow the villagers to take fundamental decisions, with the role of the communicator being that of a guide who steers them away from conflicting situations and motivating them to maintain their long-term commitments towards the project at hand.
1) The mass media is one of the best strategies of propaganda and gradual persuasion. Deriving from a cognitive-neoassociationistic perspective [Anderson & Bower, 1973; Landman & Manis, 1983; as quoted by Bryant and Zillmann, 1994: 45], we can say that when people watch, read or hear about an event through the mass media, similar ideas are activated in them which “in turn can activate other semantically related ideas and actions” [Ibid]. In that sense, the potential of the mass media is immense.
As such, every year millions of resources are spent on campaigns to change attitudes of people in the desired direction – the issues could be as varied as political candidates and consumer products to health and safety practices, and charitable causes. The ultimate aim is to influence people’s behaviour so that they will vote for certain politicians or referenda, purchase specific goods, engage in safer eating and sexual activities, and donate money to various religious, environmental and educational organisations and institutions [Ibid: 91].
This can again be achieved in two ways: firstly, through widespread propaganda which has a direct effect on the attitude and behaviour of the recipients. But, very few social scientists today will credit mass media with such persuasive powers, even though the technological advances in the last few years have been unprecedented. This is because the audience has also become more discerning than ever before. So, the other way of achieving it is through the indirect method where the media influences the opinion leaders who in turn mingle with the masses to bring about changes in their behaviour [Ibid: 92].
McQuail [2000: 432-433] has come up with four models of influence: information processing, conditioning or associational, functional, and relational. The relational model focuses on the relationship between the sender and the receiver of the message, which is basically governed by power. The two must cooperate in this power relationship if influence is to succeed. People tend to reject power, so there must be sufficient motivation to cooperate.
Kelman suggests three basic processes of influence: compliance, identification and internalisation. He also emphasises that this relational model of influence is not power-oriented. However, McQuail feels that it’s the persuader’s task to convince the persuadee that acquisition of some product or behaviour can earn him social approval and acceptance. In this sense, a power relationship does seem to exist. And, it is a fact that the mass media, through commercials and popular programmes, tends to establish this kind of relationship with its audience [Ibid and Reardon, 1991: 176-7].
To achieve identification and subsequent compliance, here’s an interesting observation by Burnkrant and Unnava [1989, as quoted by Bryant and Zillmann, 1994: 103]. They found a message that frames its pronouns in the second person (for example, ‘you’) and not in the third person (that is, ‘one’ or ‘he’ and ‘she’), is more efficient in increasing personal involvement and processing of the information conveyed. And, this is the only way mass media can bring about enduring changes in attitudes and behaviours of the recipients. Here, Bryant and Zillmann [Ibid: 102] mentions the concept of “perceived personal relevance of the communication” which enhances interest and consequent internalisation of the media message.
However, there are certain drawbacks to the mass media as a tool of propaganda and persuasion. It is commonly believed that since the same programmes are available to all the people in the country at the same time, similar experiences are interpreted in similar ways by the audience. Reardon [1991: 172], in fact, considers the watching of television to be “one of the few social influence processes that appears to lend itself neatly to cause-effect explanations”. But, this assumption could be erroneous, in the sense that the reception power of the audience might vary with age and upbringing.
It reminds one of the famous saying that you can take a horse near the water, but you cannot make it drink. Similarly, one can persuade a person to watch/ hear a particular programme, but it is not always possible to motivate him to think about the message conveyed. This is because the recipient might consider the information to be irrelevant and react unfavourably or just discard it. Even if there are apparent attitudinal changes, they might be based on superficial interpretation of the messages as opposed to elaborate processing of the message. Another reason could be that the person concerned lacks necessary skills to translate the internalised attitudes into actions because of certain social constraints.
But the most important note of caution is that although the mass media can respond to the needs of the people, at the end of the day they are money-making enterprises selling what gets them revenue. As such, their messages are seldom accepted uncritically by the discerning audience.
2) Comprising basically performing arts, the popular media is an important tool for communication in support of development. It engages in the strategy of blatant propaganda and persuasion that the concerned recipients can relate to more easily than that of the mass media.
In the last few decades, a special type of popular theatre has developed called ‘theatre for development’ wherein the workshop participants are not only trained in dramatisation but also in basic sociological techniques. “This enables them to draw up an inventory of local community problems. In each play, one problem theme is explored by and for the local community” [Boeren and Epskamp, 1992: 8].
To respond to the need for development, performing arts are used for disseminating information on government ideology and programmes, as also convincing people to accept the ideas of modernisation. In the rural areas, it is used as a participatory and confidence-building tool that not only teaches the latest technology to the farmers, but also makes them literate and promotes community education [Ibid: 112].
These campaigns can either be (a) mobile in which the government hires professional troupes to tour as many villages as possible to publicise “government ideology and development programmes”. They operate on massive scales. For example, the Indian song-and-drama troupes are estimated to give 20,000 performances a year. (b) There can be another type of campaign for mobilisation. In this, large numbers of locally-based theatre troupes are encouraged to enact plays in their own areas “on national development policies or programmes” [Ibid: 113].
Besides the programmes on government initiatives that operate within a conventional framework, there is another category of “change-oriented theatre” that performs on non-governmental initiatives. These groups “aim at contributing to a process of structural transformation by movements of agricultural labourers, marginal farmers, migrant workers, urban squatters, and other marginalised groups”. Here, the popular media helps to educate and organise the deprived population to defend themselves against victimization and gradually transform the existing power structure [Ibid: 118].
Therefore, it seems, the efficacy of the popular media is theoretically more pronounced than that of the mass media. This is because the theatre groups engaging in impromptu street plays and road shows, reach a more targeted audience with a specific message. Moreover, they have no profit-making motives and that make their strategies more objective. However, this strategy may suffer from the same limitation of motivating the audience to process and internalise the message conveyed. Whatever changes in attitude might be evident could be superficial and temporary. Besides, as Boeren puts it [Ibid: 49], popular theatre comprises an expensive affair involving a group of people over a considerable period of time. So, the campaign costs are often too prohibitive to adopt. Again, although the actors use local idioms in the play, theatre for development does amount to external intervention and the benefits of the message conveyed, seldom reach the marginal sections of the society.
3) Participatory communication has been defined as a process that “solicits the involvement of the people to shape their own development, addressing the problems they have identified and providing solutions that are feasible to them” [Boeren and Epskamp, 1992: 57].
This strategy was born in reaction to the deliberate modernisation propagated by the developed West. As Uphoff [1985; as quoted by Yoon in http://www. southbound.com.my/communication/parcom.htm] puts it, there are four ways in which participation can be ensured in a communication campaign.
Firstly, through participation in implementation where people are encouraged to take up certain responsibilities and are required to contribute specific resources. Secondly, through participation in evaluation when upon completion of the project, the target population is asked to critically analyse its success and failure. Thirdly, they can participate in the benefits of the project; for example, by drawing drinking-water from the hand-pump. Fourthly, by participating in the decision-making, whereby people plan the activities that they will do as a community and discuss the pros and cons of a particular project. For example, the target group could decide whether to construct a school building or not.
While some development campaigns provide people with all these opportunities, others restrict it to one or two ways. It is argued that participation in decision-making is the most important form to promote as it gives people an opportunity to control their lives and environment, along with acquiring problem-solving skills. The other three forms of participation are considered to encourage pseudo-participation as people can easily be manipulated to accept plans made by other more powerful people. But there are others who argue that these three ways allow people “to build-up capacity to participate in decision-making”. They feel that “prematurely mobilizing people to make their own decisions and chart their own development can put the people at risk of conflict with powerful interests and jeopardize their safety” [Ibid]. Another reason put forth by some Asian countries against the Western concept of people’s participation, is that the target population should be educated before they are allowed to take decisions from a diversity of views. Otherwise, they might find it difficult to come to a consensus and it could lead to a conflict situation.
As such, participatory communication cannot be regarded as a “panacea for development” [Ibid]; they are not always suitable for solving all problems in all situations. It can be considered to be the best strategy that has the potential to involve people to pursue their aspirations, but it has limited influence on people’s commitment because whether people want to or can participate in developmental projects depend solely on the situations they live in. For example, a mother with a terminally ill child cannot be expected to take interest in such projects.
Although the participatory strategy is a bottom-up approach that makes people self-reliant, it also presupposes that the rural population cooperates with each other to pursue their common interest. But, in reality, it often leads to total chaos and conflict due to a lack of consensus in decision-making. This democratic dilemma brings us to Jurgen Habermas’ concepts of the ‘public sphere’ and the ‘ideal speech’. As Escobar [1995; as quoted by Jacobson and Storey, 2004: 101] points out: the universalism of these concepts “under-emphasizes the plurality of human experience and applauds as social progress the abandonment of tradition in the Third World”.
The communicative action that takes place in an “ideal speech situation”, assumes that all participants contribute to the discussion equally [Habermas, as quoted in Ibid: 103]. Yet, in reality, it is the one who argues better persuades the rest; and, a logical argument can involve deception. This theory can also be applied to cultural change and loss of identity — the potential outcomes of the participatory method of communication.
Again, the concepts of "participation" and "manipulation" can be interpreted from many perspectives. An interventionist, who attempts to impose his own decisions on the target population, also brings with him a whole set of “alien cultural premises”. On the other hand, the communicator of the message may enter a village with a particular “picture of reality and set of values” in mind. And, he might even expect the people to see their plight in just the same way as he or she sees it. This can be interpreted as manipulation as well.
Another drawback that is often overlooked is the price that people have to pay for taking part in participatory processes. “It is often assumed that the villager has nothing better to do with his or her time. For every hour spent ‘participating’ there is an opportunity cost; that is, the fact that the villager may be foregoing more productive activity if the participatory process does not lead to benefits, either in the long or short term” [Ibid].
The greatest drawback of this strategy is, perhaps, the fact that the communicator is totally alien to the conditions of the target population. Doing a research on a certain community from afar and spending a few months with them does not ensure a proper understanding of the living conditions and culture of the people. As such, the best way of going about with this strategy is to allow the villagers to take fundamental decisions, with the role of the communicator being that of a guide who steers them away from conflicting situations and motivating them to maintain their long-term commitments towards the project at hand.
2.1.4 FACE-TO-FACE VERSUS MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
All the three strategies involve interpersonal communication. That is, all entail an interactive process between two people — either face-to-face or through mediated forms [http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/interpersonal/]. However, interpersonal communication is more often related to the former and is considered to be more influential when communicated through the interpersonal channels [Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 54].
This brings us to the issue of identifying the most effective development communication strategy. All have their advantages and disadvantages, and so it is debatable as to which is the best strategy to adopt.
Cartwright [1949: 253; as quoted by Bryant and Zillmann, 1994: 91] has been quoted as saying: “It is conceivable that one persuasive person could, through the use of mass media, bend the world’s population to his will”. But, there is no social scientist today who would corroborate this view, because a number of theories that have evolved since then establish selective influence of the mass media.
Leon Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory claims that if there is a psychological discomfort between a person’s beliefs/ attitudes and actions, it leads to selective perception. The intensity of influence of the message varies depending on the importance of issue and degree of inconsistency. It might induce a ‘drive state’ whereby the individual avoids or reduces dissonance by changing beliefs, attitudes or behaviours so that the messages are perceived as consistent. It could also lead to ‘selective exposure’ leading to a tendency to avoid information inconsistent with one’s beliefs and attitudes. However, critics have argued that it can be counteracted to some extent by introducing perceived usefulness of information, perceived norm of fairness or curiosity/interest value to the information. If used properly, this can even be used to persuade a hostile audience [Griffin, 1997: 165].
Katz and Lazarsfeld have also talked about the two step flow of communication to describe their observation. They feel that media messages flow from the media to opinion leaders to the rest of the audience. In other words, media influences are mediated by the pattern of our social contacts and so they have limited effects [http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/ MUHome/cshtml/media/efterms.html]. In fact, it is believed that it is this model that connects mass or the mechanical media to interpersonal communication [Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 52].
Hornik [as quoted Ibid:153] has come up with five hypotheses; the first two place more importance on the interpersonal channels or agents in achieving behavioural changes than the others. They are:
• Agent-Effects-Only Hypothesis
• Agent-Necessary-for-Media-Effects Hypothesis
• Additive Hypothesis where both media and interpersonal channels bring about change independently
• Substitution Hypothesis where both channels may substitute each other
• Reinforcement Hypothesis where both have independent effects with a positive interaction
John Fiske [1990: 19, 64, 65] talks about the system of encoding and decoding codes to understand human behaviour. A code is a system of signs that have a common meaning to the members of a culture or a community. They determine how and in what context these signs are used and how they can be combined to form complex messages. Thus, all codes perform an identifiable social or communicative function.
Of the many codes, the broadcast code is one that is shared by a mass audience. They are usually simple and have an immediate appeal even to people with less ‘education’. They are community-oriented and so tend to link the audience with the society they belong to. Thus, the audience, in turn, determine not just the content of the broadcast message, but also the form of the message. For example, broadcast messages have a beginning, the body and an end; an event may not have finished, but the news report on it has to have a conclusion [Ibid: 73-74]. In this way, the audience tend to control the message conveyed by the media.
The Uses and Gratifications Theory also espouses that the audience uses the media only to seek gratification for a variety of needs. In other words, instead of asking 'what do the media do to audiences?', the Uses and Gratifications approach asks 'what do audiences do with the media?'. The most commonly identified needs that the media gratifies for the audience are: surveillance (monitoring what is going on in the world), personal relationships, personal identity and diversion (entertainment and escapism) [http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/ MUHome/cshtml/media/efterms.html]. As such, Blumler and Katz suggest that media-users play an active role in the communication process by choosing and using the media to meet their own goal. The theory also assumes that the users have alternate choices to satisfy their need [Blumler and Katz, 1974: 37].
But, critics point out that this is an optimistic view. The theory overlooks the possibility of an unconscious influence that the media might have on our lives and how we view the world. The idea that we simply use the media to satisfy a given need does not seem to fully recognize the power of the media in today’s society [Blumler and Katz, 1974: 94].
In fact, all these theories apply not only to mass media but also to the popular media as well as the participatory method. The audience of a popular theatre might also suffer from selective perception just as they would absorb only those messages that would gratify their needs. The same applies to the receivers of a message conveyed through the participatory method; they would only be influenced by it at a superficial level.
Although the participatory process involves a higher level of interpersonal communication — that is so beneficial for any developmental work — it should always be supplemented by the other strategies, namely the mass and the popular media. This will help the target population, usually based in rural areas, to interpret the message reaching them and make them aware of their predicament, which in turn will ensure a more objective decision-making on their part as also mobilise them into participation.
This brings us to the issue of identifying the most effective development communication strategy. All have their advantages and disadvantages, and so it is debatable as to which is the best strategy to adopt.
Cartwright [1949: 253; as quoted by Bryant and Zillmann, 1994: 91] has been quoted as saying: “It is conceivable that one persuasive person could, through the use of mass media, bend the world’s population to his will”. But, there is no social scientist today who would corroborate this view, because a number of theories that have evolved since then establish selective influence of the mass media.
Leon Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory claims that if there is a psychological discomfort between a person’s beliefs/ attitudes and actions, it leads to selective perception. The intensity of influence of the message varies depending on the importance of issue and degree of inconsistency. It might induce a ‘drive state’ whereby the individual avoids or reduces dissonance by changing beliefs, attitudes or behaviours so that the messages are perceived as consistent. It could also lead to ‘selective exposure’ leading to a tendency to avoid information inconsistent with one’s beliefs and attitudes. However, critics have argued that it can be counteracted to some extent by introducing perceived usefulness of information, perceived norm of fairness or curiosity/interest value to the information. If used properly, this can even be used to persuade a hostile audience [Griffin, 1997: 165].
Katz and Lazarsfeld have also talked about the two step flow of communication to describe their observation. They feel that media messages flow from the media to opinion leaders to the rest of the audience. In other words, media influences are mediated by the pattern of our social contacts and so they have limited effects [http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/ MUHome/cshtml/media/efterms.html]. In fact, it is believed that it is this model that connects mass or the mechanical media to interpersonal communication [Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 52].
Hornik [as quoted Ibid:153] has come up with five hypotheses; the first two place more importance on the interpersonal channels or agents in achieving behavioural changes than the others. They are:
• Agent-Effects-Only Hypothesis
• Agent-Necessary-for-Media-Effects Hypothesis
• Additive Hypothesis where both media and interpersonal channels bring about change independently
• Substitution Hypothesis where both channels may substitute each other
• Reinforcement Hypothesis where both have independent effects with a positive interaction
John Fiske [1990: 19, 64, 65] talks about the system of encoding and decoding codes to understand human behaviour. A code is a system of signs that have a common meaning to the members of a culture or a community. They determine how and in what context these signs are used and how they can be combined to form complex messages. Thus, all codes perform an identifiable social or communicative function.
Of the many codes, the broadcast code is one that is shared by a mass audience. They are usually simple and have an immediate appeal even to people with less ‘education’. They are community-oriented and so tend to link the audience with the society they belong to. Thus, the audience, in turn, determine not just the content of the broadcast message, but also the form of the message. For example, broadcast messages have a beginning, the body and an end; an event may not have finished, but the news report on it has to have a conclusion [Ibid: 73-74]. In this way, the audience tend to control the message conveyed by the media.
The Uses and Gratifications Theory also espouses that the audience uses the media only to seek gratification for a variety of needs. In other words, instead of asking 'what do the media do to audiences?', the Uses and Gratifications approach asks 'what do audiences do with the media?'. The most commonly identified needs that the media gratifies for the audience are: surveillance (monitoring what is going on in the world), personal relationships, personal identity and diversion (entertainment and escapism) [http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/ MUHome/cshtml/media/efterms.html]. As such, Blumler and Katz suggest that media-users play an active role in the communication process by choosing and using the media to meet their own goal. The theory also assumes that the users have alternate choices to satisfy their need [Blumler and Katz, 1974: 37].
But, critics point out that this is an optimistic view. The theory overlooks the possibility of an unconscious influence that the media might have on our lives and how we view the world. The idea that we simply use the media to satisfy a given need does not seem to fully recognize the power of the media in today’s society [Blumler and Katz, 1974: 94].
In fact, all these theories apply not only to mass media but also to the popular media as well as the participatory method. The audience of a popular theatre might also suffer from selective perception just as they would absorb only those messages that would gratify their needs. The same applies to the receivers of a message conveyed through the participatory method; they would only be influenced by it at a superficial level.
Although the participatory process involves a higher level of interpersonal communication — that is so beneficial for any developmental work — it should always be supplemented by the other strategies, namely the mass and the popular media. This will help the target population, usually based in rural areas, to interpret the message reaching them and make them aware of their predicament, which in turn will ensure a more objective decision-making on their part as also mobilise them into participation.
2.2. ANALYSING THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
2.2.1 What are the reasons for the success or failure of communication for development?
The way you communicate developmental issues can make or break the project at hand. If your communication strategies are successful, the outcome can be dramatic. But again, there can be several reasons why a communication process might fail completely. This is because, development communication is often considered to be an “add-on to general planning and funding” and so necessary only for a short period of time. As such, the information does not reach the masses deep enough to change their behaviour and there are unrealistic expectations from the limited time allotted for effects [Bagsak in http://www.comminit. com/planningmodels/pmodels/planningmodels-55.html].
As Windahl, Signitzer and Olson [1992: 101] put it, one of the main reasons for the failure of some communication campaigns is that, in practice, they are generally unfolded in a linear model. It is only the participatory method that is based on a feedback system.
Furthermore, it is the nature of the sender/receiver relationship that is most crucial in any communication strategy. While campaigning, the sender cannot afford to ignore the needs, interests, values, and communication potential of the recipients. This might create distrust among the audience and they can refuse to attend workshops or even try to understand the message conveyed. In such cases, the campaign is bound to fail.
The shortcomings in a development communication strategy can also arise out of the differences in culture and level of education between the sender and the receiver of the message. The ways in which cultural traits and knowledge are transferred in traditional developing societies, differ immensely from the Western system of education. So, thoughtless introduction of Euro-American educational models and technologies cannot bridge the gap between “foreign cultural import and indigenous cultural potential” [Boeren and Epskamp, 1992: 8].
So, what are the reasons for the success of development communication? The answer lies simply in choosing the right strategy. But, as Anne Gregory [2000: 180] puts it: it is not the strategy but your tactics that might need to be improved upon. You need to ask such questions as: Do you really understand the target population? Do your messages have credibility? Do you have adequate resources? Is the programme too ambitious or perhaps not sufficiently ambitious?
Again, a clear understanding of certain terms [Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 13-17] — often confused by the communication planner — can ascertain the success of a developmental campaign.
Receiver and target population: The former is the group for which the message is targeted, while the latter is the group whose behaviour and attitudes are to be influenced. The communicator needs to be carefully because, the two groups can become identical, a part of each other or even mutually exclusive, depending on the message that is communicated.
Effects and effectiveness/ consequences: A communication campaign always produces some ‘effect’ or the other. But, the results or consequences may be inadequate and so, not ‘effective’. Again, when a strategy is ‘effective’, it can bring about long-term ‘effects’ — whether intended or unintended. This brings us to the uses and gratifications theory, where the receiver takes in or uses only those effects that he thinks is right for him or gratifies him [Blumler and Katz, 1974: 118].
Feedback and feed-forward: The former is often confused with ‘effect’. ‘Feedback’ is actually the receiver’s reaction to the sender’s message. ‘Feed-forward’, on the other hand, is the information that the campaign planner gathers about the receiver before shaping the messages. The depth of this information is very important as it often determines the success or failure of a communications strategy.
But, as Rice and Atkin [1989:10; as quoted by Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 102] say: “Campaign objectives and criteria for success should be reasonable; not only is it difficult to pass through all the individual’s information processing stages and to overcome constraints on resources, beliefs, and behaviour, but many public communication campaigns have typically set higher standards for success than the most successful commercial campaigns.” So, the planner should set realistic goals that are achievable.
A communication strategy can, on the other hand, face challenges with regard to social norms, measurement of different kinds of effects, long term or ‘delayed’ effects, indirect or unexpected effects, reaching ‘hard to reach’ and ‘hard to convince’ audiences [Bagsak in http://www.comminit.com/planningmodels/pmodels/planningmodels-55.html].
This brings us to one of the most famous articles on communications campaign by Hyman and Sheatsley, namely “Some Reasons Why Information Campaigns Fail” [1947:412]. In this article, the authors talk about this particular section of the American population that is absolutely impossible to reach. Because of their “selective exposure, selective perception and selective retention”, the receivers are immune to any kind of influence. Identifying the right strategy to reach such an audience is what ensures the success of a communication campaign.
However, there are five basic questions [Gregory, 2000: 182] that can tell you if a project is running successfully or not. By systematically working on these questions, one can make or break a program. They are:
# What are you trying to achieve?
# Who do you want to reach?
# What do you want to say?
# What are the most effective ways of getting the message across?
# How can success be measured?
Besides, one of the main reasons for the success or failure of development communication depends on how well the North understands the South. This is because more often than not the communication strategies are formulated by the developed Western world, for implementation in the under-developed or developing world. So, it is but natural that the former does not always have a clear understanding of the needs and desires of the latter.
The way you communicate developmental issues can make or break the project at hand. If your communication strategies are successful, the outcome can be dramatic. But again, there can be several reasons why a communication process might fail completely. This is because, development communication is often considered to be an “add-on to general planning and funding” and so necessary only for a short period of time. As such, the information does not reach the masses deep enough to change their behaviour and there are unrealistic expectations from the limited time allotted for effects [Bagsak in http://www.comminit. com/planningmodels/pmodels/planningmodels-55.html].
As Windahl, Signitzer and Olson [1992: 101] put it, one of the main reasons for the failure of some communication campaigns is that, in practice, they are generally unfolded in a linear model. It is only the participatory method that is based on a feedback system.
Furthermore, it is the nature of the sender/receiver relationship that is most crucial in any communication strategy. While campaigning, the sender cannot afford to ignore the needs, interests, values, and communication potential of the recipients. This might create distrust among the audience and they can refuse to attend workshops or even try to understand the message conveyed. In such cases, the campaign is bound to fail.
The shortcomings in a development communication strategy can also arise out of the differences in culture and level of education between the sender and the receiver of the message. The ways in which cultural traits and knowledge are transferred in traditional developing societies, differ immensely from the Western system of education. So, thoughtless introduction of Euro-American educational models and technologies cannot bridge the gap between “foreign cultural import and indigenous cultural potential” [Boeren and Epskamp, 1992: 8].
So, what are the reasons for the success of development communication? The answer lies simply in choosing the right strategy. But, as Anne Gregory [2000: 180] puts it: it is not the strategy but your tactics that might need to be improved upon. You need to ask such questions as: Do you really understand the target population? Do your messages have credibility? Do you have adequate resources? Is the programme too ambitious or perhaps not sufficiently ambitious?
Again, a clear understanding of certain terms [Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 13-17] — often confused by the communication planner — can ascertain the success of a developmental campaign.
Receiver and target population: The former is the group for which the message is targeted, while the latter is the group whose behaviour and attitudes are to be influenced. The communicator needs to be carefully because, the two groups can become identical, a part of each other or even mutually exclusive, depending on the message that is communicated.
Effects and effectiveness/ consequences: A communication campaign always produces some ‘effect’ or the other. But, the results or consequences may be inadequate and so, not ‘effective’. Again, when a strategy is ‘effective’, it can bring about long-term ‘effects’ — whether intended or unintended. This brings us to the uses and gratifications theory, where the receiver takes in or uses only those effects that he thinks is right for him or gratifies him [Blumler and Katz, 1974: 118].
Feedback and feed-forward: The former is often confused with ‘effect’. ‘Feedback’ is actually the receiver’s reaction to the sender’s message. ‘Feed-forward’, on the other hand, is the information that the campaign planner gathers about the receiver before shaping the messages. The depth of this information is very important as it often determines the success or failure of a communications strategy.
But, as Rice and Atkin [1989:10; as quoted by Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 102] say: “Campaign objectives and criteria for success should be reasonable; not only is it difficult to pass through all the individual’s information processing stages and to overcome constraints on resources, beliefs, and behaviour, but many public communication campaigns have typically set higher standards for success than the most successful commercial campaigns.” So, the planner should set realistic goals that are achievable.
A communication strategy can, on the other hand, face challenges with regard to social norms, measurement of different kinds of effects, long term or ‘delayed’ effects, indirect or unexpected effects, reaching ‘hard to reach’ and ‘hard to convince’ audiences [Bagsak in http://www.comminit.com/planningmodels/pmodels/planningmodels-55.html].
This brings us to one of the most famous articles on communications campaign by Hyman and Sheatsley, namely “Some Reasons Why Information Campaigns Fail” [1947:412]. In this article, the authors talk about this particular section of the American population that is absolutely impossible to reach. Because of their “selective exposure, selective perception and selective retention”, the receivers are immune to any kind of influence. Identifying the right strategy to reach such an audience is what ensures the success of a communication campaign.
However, there are five basic questions [Gregory, 2000: 182] that can tell you if a project is running successfully or not. By systematically working on these questions, one can make or break a program. They are:
# What are you trying to achieve?
# Who do you want to reach?
# What do you want to say?
# What are the most effective ways of getting the message across?
# How can success be measured?
Besides, one of the main reasons for the success or failure of development communication depends on how well the North understands the South. This is because more often than not the communication strategies are formulated by the developed Western world, for implementation in the under-developed or developing world. So, it is but natural that the former does not always have a clear understanding of the needs and desires of the latter.
2.2.2 How can it be made more effective?
Mendelson, [1973: 50-61] the author of another oft-quoted article on “Some Reasons Why Information Campaigns Can Succeed”, points out three conditions under which communication campaigns can be made more effective. Firstly, campaigns should be based on the assumption that the receivers are not even remotely interested in the message. Secondly, the planner should combine diffusion of information with interpersonal communication. Thirdly, the planner should remember that the receivers do not constitute a monolithic mass and so should cater to their individual demographic and psychological characteristics.
Although opinions vary, implementation of any communication policy should include a combination of systematic and creative planning. Both are equally essential in dissemination of information – using innovative methods to solve communication problems are as important as using a systematic approach to ensure that the message reaches all members of the receiver group.
In fact, Windahl, Signitzer and Olson [1992: 20] have merged the two methods into ‘creative systematics’ — “finding creative ways to structure systematic work”; and ‘systematic creativity’ — “striving in a systematic way for creative solutions to problems.” Depending on the stage of communication planning, one can emphasise each approach. “Creativity usually dominates during the initiation and production phases, systematics during the implementation and evaluation phases” [Ibid: 21].
Then, a mass communicator has to focus on many qualities while sending across a message; the chief among them are the perceptive ability and information processing potential of the receiver [Severin and Tankard, 1997: 73-74]. Selective perception is the tendency of a person to be influenced by wants, needs, attitudes and other psychological factors. This plays an important role in any communication as it also comprises its main hindrance. As such, no communicator can assume that the same message will have the same intended meaning to all its receivers. What further complicates this process is that the message is not interpreted by the recipients in the same manner.
Thus, for effective communication, the communicator should emphasise on a few more qualities. These include empathy, social perspective-taking, situational knowledge comprising contexts, time, space, the cultural context and public opinion, and receiver-oriented relationship [Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 21].
It is very important that the communicator gets into the shoes of the receiver to get a proper understanding of the latter’s situation. This awareness should be supplemented with an understanding of the options available to the recipient in the given social perspective. For example, a receiver may accept a message but may lack the resources to behave in accordance with it. The hindrance may come from religious or cultural norms.
Situational knowledge is the ability to assess correctly what is appropriate and effective in a particular situation. A communication never takes place in a vacuum, but rather in a complex social, political and economic matrix. A reference to the context always makes it more interesting to the receivers. In the same way, if the communication of a message is sensitive to the time factor, depending on whether it is time-bound or timeless, it is bound to be a success. For any interpersonal communication, the space or the venue in which it takes place has an equally important effect. For example, to convey students about the exam dates, the assembly hall is a better venue any day than the cafeteria.
More often than not, communication takes place between different cultures or even sub-cultures in the society. So, the communicator has to be careful as to how he puts across his message. For example, the culture between two generations of the same society might be different. Closely following it, the message will be received and interpreted in keeping with the public opinion of the society, or the values, beliefs and ideas of the society.
The last but not the least is the relationship between the message originator, the planner and the receiver. In some cases, we find that the planner leans more towards the originator than the receiver. Here we can say that the originator controls the process. In certain other cases, we find that the planner takes an independent stance trying to balance the requirements of both the originator and the receiver. But, an ideal situation would be one where the interests of both the originator and the planner merge, and the planner oriented towards the receiver. Only then the communication process tends to be more effective.
According to Bagsak [http://www.comminit.com/planningmodels/pmodels/planningmodels-55.html], the five key ideas that make a communication campaign effective are:
1. Focus on both individual and contextual factors that affect behavior change
2. Integrate top-down and bottom-up approaches, in order to promote participation of actors at different levels
3. Have a tool-kit approach to deal with problems, priorities, and target groups. For example, use the mass media to reach large populations; use social mobilisation to bolster participation and support outreach efforts; use media advocacy to gain support from governments and donors; use popular or folk media to generate dialogue and activate information networks.
4. Combining mass media and interpersonal communication can raise awareness and knowledge, and stimulate social networks and peer conversation.
5. Community empowerment is the key to sustain projects because mass participation is intrinsic to the success of any development communication.
Again, Rice and Atkin (1989) and Rogers and Storey (1987), [as quoted by Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 102], have mentioned seven factors that contribute to successful campaigning. They constitute:
1. the role of the mass media in creating awareness and stimulating others to participate
2. the role of interpersonal communication is instrumental in behavioural change as also the maintenance of such change
3. credibility of the originator or sender of the message
4. evaluation of campaign objectives and messages to make sure they fit media habits, audience predispositions and availability of resources
5. campaign appeals must be specific rather than general
6. preventive behaviour is difficult to achieve because of delayed benefits, and so they must be related to immediate gains
7. finally, the messages should be in keeping with the times and be culturally acceptable as well. Besides, the channels of transmission must be available to the audience.
Along the same lines, McQuail has also introduced the concept of four filtering factors that can ensure the success of a campaign: attention, perception, group situation and motivation [Ibid: 104].
Cernea [1991: 465] brings in the concept of ‘fitting projects to people’ through a case study on three rural development projects in Mexico, Ghana and Nepal. Here he emphasizes on participation of the recipients not only in the implementation of a communication process, but also in the initial formulation of the plan. He feels that the recipients, being local residents, are better informed about their community and so can judge the practicalities of a project plan. Besides, they would be more committed towards a project with which they have been involved right from its inception than one that has been suddenly handed over to them. But it is often seen that the elite of the community wean away such participatory rights to further their own profits. This effectively cuts off the non-elites with limited resources whose participation would have actually benefited the project.
But, in fact, most communication planners feel it's because of paucity of funds that programmes are failing. Very few realize that programs fail because they are not implemented well. Awareness generation through a sound communication strategy is very important; whereas most projects get restricted due to badly made posters and pamphlets. This is because no CNA (Communication Needs Assessment) is done. What is required is to raise the awareness generation level enough so that the people concerned can generate and sustain debates on the issue at hand. The target audience needs to realize why certain practices are desirable, while others are not. Merely telling them not to practice certain things or resorting to fear psychosis (for example, the AIDS poster with the danger sign — skull and bones) will not help matters.
Thus, a detailed research on the background of the target population is very important, so as to know how to involve them best in the project. Then, the media messages should be modified to suit the purpose and fit the project. Thereafter, the influence of the communicated messages on the receiver needs to be evaluated.
Although opinions vary, implementation of any communication policy should include a combination of systematic and creative planning. Both are equally essential in dissemination of information – using innovative methods to solve communication problems are as important as using a systematic approach to ensure that the message reaches all members of the receiver group.
In fact, Windahl, Signitzer and Olson [1992: 20] have merged the two methods into ‘creative systematics’ — “finding creative ways to structure systematic work”; and ‘systematic creativity’ — “striving in a systematic way for creative solutions to problems.” Depending on the stage of communication planning, one can emphasise each approach. “Creativity usually dominates during the initiation and production phases, systematics during the implementation and evaluation phases” [Ibid: 21].
Then, a mass communicator has to focus on many qualities while sending across a message; the chief among them are the perceptive ability and information processing potential of the receiver [Severin and Tankard, 1997: 73-74]. Selective perception is the tendency of a person to be influenced by wants, needs, attitudes and other psychological factors. This plays an important role in any communication as it also comprises its main hindrance. As such, no communicator can assume that the same message will have the same intended meaning to all its receivers. What further complicates this process is that the message is not interpreted by the recipients in the same manner.
Thus, for effective communication, the communicator should emphasise on a few more qualities. These include empathy, social perspective-taking, situational knowledge comprising contexts, time, space, the cultural context and public opinion, and receiver-oriented relationship [Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 21].
It is very important that the communicator gets into the shoes of the receiver to get a proper understanding of the latter’s situation. This awareness should be supplemented with an understanding of the options available to the recipient in the given social perspective. For example, a receiver may accept a message but may lack the resources to behave in accordance with it. The hindrance may come from religious or cultural norms.
Situational knowledge is the ability to assess correctly what is appropriate and effective in a particular situation. A communication never takes place in a vacuum, but rather in a complex social, political and economic matrix. A reference to the context always makes it more interesting to the receivers. In the same way, if the communication of a message is sensitive to the time factor, depending on whether it is time-bound or timeless, it is bound to be a success. For any interpersonal communication, the space or the venue in which it takes place has an equally important effect. For example, to convey students about the exam dates, the assembly hall is a better venue any day than the cafeteria.
More often than not, communication takes place between different cultures or even sub-cultures in the society. So, the communicator has to be careful as to how he puts across his message. For example, the culture between two generations of the same society might be different. Closely following it, the message will be received and interpreted in keeping with the public opinion of the society, or the values, beliefs and ideas of the society.
The last but not the least is the relationship between the message originator, the planner and the receiver. In some cases, we find that the planner leans more towards the originator than the receiver. Here we can say that the originator controls the process. In certain other cases, we find that the planner takes an independent stance trying to balance the requirements of both the originator and the receiver. But, an ideal situation would be one where the interests of both the originator and the planner merge, and the planner oriented towards the receiver. Only then the communication process tends to be more effective.
According to Bagsak [http://www.comminit.com/planningmodels/pmodels/planningmodels-55.html], the five key ideas that make a communication campaign effective are:
1. Focus on both individual and contextual factors that affect behavior change
2. Integrate top-down and bottom-up approaches, in order to promote participation of actors at different levels
3. Have a tool-kit approach to deal with problems, priorities, and target groups. For example, use the mass media to reach large populations; use social mobilisation to bolster participation and support outreach efforts; use media advocacy to gain support from governments and donors; use popular or folk media to generate dialogue and activate information networks.
4. Combining mass media and interpersonal communication can raise awareness and knowledge, and stimulate social networks and peer conversation.
5. Community empowerment is the key to sustain projects because mass participation is intrinsic to the success of any development communication.
Again, Rice and Atkin (1989) and Rogers and Storey (1987), [as quoted by Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992: 102], have mentioned seven factors that contribute to successful campaigning. They constitute:
1. the role of the mass media in creating awareness and stimulating others to participate
2. the role of interpersonal communication is instrumental in behavioural change as also the maintenance of such change
3. credibility of the originator or sender of the message
4. evaluation of campaign objectives and messages to make sure they fit media habits, audience predispositions and availability of resources
5. campaign appeals must be specific rather than general
6. preventive behaviour is difficult to achieve because of delayed benefits, and so they must be related to immediate gains
7. finally, the messages should be in keeping with the times and be culturally acceptable as well. Besides, the channels of transmission must be available to the audience.
Along the same lines, McQuail has also introduced the concept of four filtering factors that can ensure the success of a campaign: attention, perception, group situation and motivation [Ibid: 104].
Cernea [1991: 465] brings in the concept of ‘fitting projects to people’ through a case study on three rural development projects in Mexico, Ghana and Nepal. Here he emphasizes on participation of the recipients not only in the implementation of a communication process, but also in the initial formulation of the plan. He feels that the recipients, being local residents, are better informed about their community and so can judge the practicalities of a project plan. Besides, they would be more committed towards a project with which they have been involved right from its inception than one that has been suddenly handed over to them. But it is often seen that the elite of the community wean away such participatory rights to further their own profits. This effectively cuts off the non-elites with limited resources whose participation would have actually benefited the project.
But, in fact, most communication planners feel it's because of paucity of funds that programmes are failing. Very few realize that programs fail because they are not implemented well. Awareness generation through a sound communication strategy is very important; whereas most projects get restricted due to badly made posters and pamphlets. This is because no CNA (Communication Needs Assessment) is done. What is required is to raise the awareness generation level enough so that the people concerned can generate and sustain debates on the issue at hand. The target audience needs to realize why certain practices are desirable, while others are not. Merely telling them not to practice certain things or resorting to fear psychosis (for example, the AIDS poster with the danger sign — skull and bones) will not help matters.
Thus, a detailed research on the background of the target population is very important, so as to know how to involve them best in the project. Then, the media messages should be modified to suit the purpose and fit the project. Thereafter, the influence of the communicated messages on the receiver needs to be evaluated.
2.2.3 What is the influence of the cultural context? How can media campaign be used to realize the objective of development communication?
Any kind of communication, more so if it is an interpersonal one, entails a certain level of cultural communication. When a Western country offers its technological know-how, political and economic concepts and organisational skills, it is obviously offering a part of its culture to the developing countries. This cultural exchange determines, in a big way, the success or failure of a communication process.
In fact, as Boeren and Epskamp [1992: 234] say, professional communicators should keep two factors in mind: firstly, culture comprises a constantly changing pattern of inter-related elements such as relationships, opinions and actions. Secondly, you cannot move one element without disturbing the entire pattern. As such, one has to be doubly careful when indulging in such interpersonal cultural exchange.
These cultural values are inculcated in our minds through a social process, namely education. This can again take place in three ways: formal education or the knowledge acquired through schooling; non-formal education or the out-of-school education; and the informal education that is truly life-long whereby we acquire values, attitudes, skills and knowledge from our daily experiences and the surrounding ambience. Thus, along with the cultural context, the level and mode of education also influences development communication processes. The latter mirrors the ideological and cultural pattern of the society.
Casmir [1991: 28] says, “ We use cultural models to simplify, organise, and interpret our perception of reality.” This is the reason why a certain group of people might see certain things that others might fail to notice, even though both are exposed to identical situations. As such, the new paradigm of development suggests total involvement of the target audience in the communications project, so that their perceptions, attitudes, values and knowledge are taken into account. It also recommends solving problems from within the system rather than imposing “new and allegedly superior systems” from the outside [Ibid: 32].
During the feed-forward stage when the sender is gathering data on the target population, it is important to find out what kind of programme content the local mass media catering to that community has on offer. For example, Indians like listening to film music and the Caribbeans like to dance to calypso music. Accordingly, the communicator should choose his or her strategy of communication because similar products are culturally popular with the local people. In one classic case, it was found that when the use of contraceptives was publicised in the television by two trendy teenage pop idols, it caught on readily with the younger generation; the images coaxed them to think twice before making love without a contraceptive [Boeren and Epskamp, 1992: 240].
But in its bid for globalisation, the Western media is often found to impose its way of programming and programme content on the developing world. With the concentration and convergence of the media, it is the big media conglomerates based in the West that control the world media. As a result, the Western media is often accused of destroying the indigenous cultural values and beliefs of the Third World. This method of moulding and manipulating the culture amounts to social irresponsibility on the part of the mass media.
Again, the same symbols and motifs may mean different things to different people. The most obvious real-life example that comes to mind is of this person who wears a T-shirt with the Indian Swastik symbol on it. When he wears it in India, it is a fashion statement; but when he wears the same T-shirt in Germany, people frown at him and give him unfriendly looks. This is because the now-banned Nazi symbol looks very similar to the Indian Swastik.
Thus, we can conclude that the cultural context greatly influences any form of communication. It is the role of the mass media to bridge this cultural gap by being sensitive to the needs and beliefs of the people it is catering to.
In fact, as Boeren and Epskamp [1992: 234] say, professional communicators should keep two factors in mind: firstly, culture comprises a constantly changing pattern of inter-related elements such as relationships, opinions and actions. Secondly, you cannot move one element without disturbing the entire pattern. As such, one has to be doubly careful when indulging in such interpersonal cultural exchange.
These cultural values are inculcated in our minds through a social process, namely education. This can again take place in three ways: formal education or the knowledge acquired through schooling; non-formal education or the out-of-school education; and the informal education that is truly life-long whereby we acquire values, attitudes, skills and knowledge from our daily experiences and the surrounding ambience. Thus, along with the cultural context, the level and mode of education also influences development communication processes. The latter mirrors the ideological and cultural pattern of the society.
Casmir [1991: 28] says, “ We use cultural models to simplify, organise, and interpret our perception of reality.” This is the reason why a certain group of people might see certain things that others might fail to notice, even though both are exposed to identical situations. As such, the new paradigm of development suggests total involvement of the target audience in the communications project, so that their perceptions, attitudes, values and knowledge are taken into account. It also recommends solving problems from within the system rather than imposing “new and allegedly superior systems” from the outside [Ibid: 32].
During the feed-forward stage when the sender is gathering data on the target population, it is important to find out what kind of programme content the local mass media catering to that community has on offer. For example, Indians like listening to film music and the Caribbeans like to dance to calypso music. Accordingly, the communicator should choose his or her strategy of communication because similar products are culturally popular with the local people. In one classic case, it was found that when the use of contraceptives was publicised in the television by two trendy teenage pop idols, it caught on readily with the younger generation; the images coaxed them to think twice before making love without a contraceptive [Boeren and Epskamp, 1992: 240].
But in its bid for globalisation, the Western media is often found to impose its way of programming and programme content on the developing world. With the concentration and convergence of the media, it is the big media conglomerates based in the West that control the world media. As a result, the Western media is often accused of destroying the indigenous cultural values and beliefs of the Third World. This method of moulding and manipulating the culture amounts to social irresponsibility on the part of the mass media.
Again, the same symbols and motifs may mean different things to different people. The most obvious real-life example that comes to mind is of this person who wears a T-shirt with the Indian Swastik symbol on it. When he wears it in India, it is a fashion statement; but when he wears the same T-shirt in Germany, people frown at him and give him unfriendly looks. This is because the now-banned Nazi symbol looks very similar to the Indian Swastik.
Thus, we can conclude that the cultural context greatly influences any form of communication. It is the role of the mass media to bridge this cultural gap by being sensitive to the needs and beliefs of the people it is catering to.
3. EMPIRICAL SECTION
3.1.1 WHAT RESEARCH METHODOLOGY HAS BEEN FOLLOWED AND WHY?
Mainly two research methods have been used — critical analysis of literature and semi-structured interview.
Literature review or critical analysis of the existing literature forms the foundation of every research work. It helps to develop a good insight into relevant previous research and the trends that have emerged. A deductive approach has been followed to identify the literature. That is, a conceptual framework has been developed which is subsequently tested using data from the literature.
Gall et al [as quoted by Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2003: 46] point out several purposes or advantages of literature review, such as:
• it helps to refine research questions and objectives
• it highlights research possibilities that have been overlooked till date
• it helps avoid work that has already been done
• it also gives an insight into the research strategies and techniques that may be appropriate for your research
It also helps to identify the relevant theories, demonstrate knowledge in the chosen field, prevent plagiarism by referring to work by recognised experts, as well as support arguments with valid evidence in a logical manner.
Thus, literature review has been used to string together different ideas culled from the literature into a cohesive argument to justify the context and the content of my research. But, this method has a drawback: the researcher has a tendency to refer to only that literature which positively supports the work, often overlooking contrary ideas.
Data has been collected using both primary and secondary sources. As a primary source, data has been gathered from the seminar report of The Cardiff Group and reports by Government of India, Ministry of Health. As a secondary source, books, journals and internet publications relevant to the research have been consulted.
To overcome the limitations of this research method, it has been supplemented by semi-structured interview in the empirical section, whereby a list of themes and questions had to be covered. These often varied from interview to interview, with some questions being omitted or their order being re-arranged depending on the respondent’s background. At times, additional questions have also been used to explore the research questions. Besides, the questions were primarily open-ended, to facilitate understanding of the respondent’s point of view. The data was recorded either by note-taking or through emails. So, they were one-to-one qualitative interviews that were conducted either face-to-face, over the telephone or through emails.
However, there are certain advantages as well as disadvantages of semi-structured interviews as well. It can strike a positive rapport between the interviewer and the interviewee; since the respondent talks about something in detail and depth, there are chances of high validity; it offers an opportunity to clarify complex questions and issues; with few pre-set questions involved, the interviewer does not pre-judge what is important and what is not. On the other hand, the success of the interview depends on the skill of the interviewer and the articulacy of the respondent. Again, the drawback of this interview method is that it could be time-consuming and expensive; the qualitative response may be difficult to analyse; lastly, the validity of the responses may be questionable for a number of reasons, such as the researcher has no way of verifying the veracity of the answers or the respondents may have imperfect recall [Ibid: 268].
Extensive library work has been engaged in by the researcher to reduce the chance of arriving at any fallacious conclusions to some extent.
Mainly two research methods have been used — critical analysis of literature and semi-structured interview.
Literature review or critical analysis of the existing literature forms the foundation of every research work. It helps to develop a good insight into relevant previous research and the trends that have emerged. A deductive approach has been followed to identify the literature. That is, a conceptual framework has been developed which is subsequently tested using data from the literature.
Gall et al [as quoted by Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2003: 46] point out several purposes or advantages of literature review, such as:
• it helps to refine research questions and objectives
• it highlights research possibilities that have been overlooked till date
• it helps avoid work that has already been done
• it also gives an insight into the research strategies and techniques that may be appropriate for your research
It also helps to identify the relevant theories, demonstrate knowledge in the chosen field, prevent plagiarism by referring to work by recognised experts, as well as support arguments with valid evidence in a logical manner.
Thus, literature review has been used to string together different ideas culled from the literature into a cohesive argument to justify the context and the content of my research. But, this method has a drawback: the researcher has a tendency to refer to only that literature which positively supports the work, often overlooking contrary ideas.
Data has been collected using both primary and secondary sources. As a primary source, data has been gathered from the seminar report of The Cardiff Group and reports by Government of India, Ministry of Health. As a secondary source, books, journals and internet publications relevant to the research have been consulted.
To overcome the limitations of this research method, it has been supplemented by semi-structured interview in the empirical section, whereby a list of themes and questions had to be covered. These often varied from interview to interview, with some questions being omitted or their order being re-arranged depending on the respondent’s background. At times, additional questions have also been used to explore the research questions. Besides, the questions were primarily open-ended, to facilitate understanding of the respondent’s point of view. The data was recorded either by note-taking or through emails. So, they were one-to-one qualitative interviews that were conducted either face-to-face, over the telephone or through emails.
However, there are certain advantages as well as disadvantages of semi-structured interviews as well. It can strike a positive rapport between the interviewer and the interviewee; since the respondent talks about something in detail and depth, there are chances of high validity; it offers an opportunity to clarify complex questions and issues; with few pre-set questions involved, the interviewer does not pre-judge what is important and what is not. On the other hand, the success of the interview depends on the skill of the interviewer and the articulacy of the respondent. Again, the drawback of this interview method is that it could be time-consuming and expensive; the qualitative response may be difficult to analyse; lastly, the validity of the responses may be questionable for a number of reasons, such as the researcher has no way of verifying the veracity of the answers or the respondents may have imperfect recall [Ibid: 268].
Extensive library work has been engaged in by the researcher to reduce the chance of arriving at any fallacious conclusions to some extent.
3.1.2 RATIONALE BEHIND THE CHOICE OF TCG AND THE QUESTIONNAIRE
TCG has been chosen for the empirical study because it is a newly-evolved organisation without any defined communication policy that would help realise its aim of design and development. Since the researcher’s objective is to identify an effective communication policy, the freshness of TCG acts as a clean slate.
To facilitate the research findings, two sets of questionnaire have been used for two categories of respondents — the founding members of TCG as well as professionals from the development sector. The reason behind this was to gather empirical information on TCG as well as general information on the issue at hand.
The interviews were mostly conducted through emails because most of the respondents are busy professionals with schedules that entail frequent travelling. The advantage of using email as a mode of interview is that it can be accessed from any corner of the globe. This makes it less time and cost-intensive.
Besides this, Rob Aley has been interviewed telephonically and Angharad Thomas face-to-face. As an obvious drawback of a telephonic interview, Aley did deviate marginally from the questionnaire as soon as a rapport was established. But, because of his previous experience in working on design and development as well as his familiarity with the objectives of TCG, his response on a suitable communication policy for the Group was very insightful. Thomas, on the other hand, got very involved with the aims and objectives of the Group without contributing much to the research questions. As such, her responses helped largely in tracing the roots of TCG.
Other than the TCG members, valuable responses were received from well-placed professionals in the development sector, namely Tom Hewitt, Chirantani Dey and Ines Smyth. Hewitt is the director of the Child Rights Information Network (CRIN), a global network that disseminates information about children’s rights amongst NGOs, United Nations agencies, inter-governmental organisations (IGOs), educational institutions and other child rights experts (CRIN is hosted by Save the Children, UK, and also has support from Save Sweden, UNICEF and the Alliance); Smyth is the regional policy advisor for west and southern Africa, policy department, Oxfam, Great Britain; while Dey is a program officer (communication, documentation and advocacy) at UNDP, CHARCA (a joint United Nations project on reducing women's vulnerability to HIV/AIDS), India. Among the responses received, some of the points raised by Smyth could not be clarified because she was travelling and could not be contacted. As such, several disparities in her responses could not be analysed by the researcher.
To facilitate the research findings, two sets of questionnaire have been used for two categories of respondents — the founding members of TCG as well as professionals from the development sector. The reason behind this was to gather empirical information on TCG as well as general information on the issue at hand.
The interviews were mostly conducted through emails because most of the respondents are busy professionals with schedules that entail frequent travelling. The advantage of using email as a mode of interview is that it can be accessed from any corner of the globe. This makes it less time and cost-intensive.
Besides this, Rob Aley has been interviewed telephonically and Angharad Thomas face-to-face. As an obvious drawback of a telephonic interview, Aley did deviate marginally from the questionnaire as soon as a rapport was established. But, because of his previous experience in working on design and development as well as his familiarity with the objectives of TCG, his response on a suitable communication policy for the Group was very insightful. Thomas, on the other hand, got very involved with the aims and objectives of the Group without contributing much to the research questions. As such, her responses helped largely in tracing the roots of TCG.
Other than the TCG members, valuable responses were received from well-placed professionals in the development sector, namely Tom Hewitt, Chirantani Dey and Ines Smyth. Hewitt is the director of the Child Rights Information Network (CRIN), a global network that disseminates information about children’s rights amongst NGOs, United Nations agencies, inter-governmental organisations (IGOs), educational institutions and other child rights experts (CRIN is hosted by Save the Children, UK, and also has support from Save Sweden, UNICEF and the Alliance); Smyth is the regional policy advisor for west and southern Africa, policy department, Oxfam, Great Britain; while Dey is a program officer (communication, documentation and advocacy) at UNDP, CHARCA (a joint United Nations project on reducing women's vulnerability to HIV/AIDS), India. Among the responses received, some of the points raised by Smyth could not be clarified because she was travelling and could not be contacted. As such, several disparities in her responses could not be analysed by the researcher.
3.1.3 THE CARDIFF GROUP: TRACING ITS ROOTS
TCG was born out of a two-day seminar held in July 2002, organised mainly by James Fathers, Tim Coward and Angharad Thomas. Since then, it has turned into an interdisciplinary group of academics and practitioners drawn from fields as varied as design, development studies and economics. Among the founding members, Coward is the Director of Research and Graduate Studies in the Cardiff School of Arts and Design at the University of Wales Institute (UWIC), while Thomas is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Art and Design at the University of Salford, and Fathers is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Product and Engineering Design at the UWIC.
The focus of interest of the Group is the exploration and articulation of the relationships between design and development, in any global context but particularly in low-income economies. The process of design is considered by the members to be more important than the artefact produced. They believe that design is an essential ingredient in the production of all commodities, management systems and services, and this fact is acknowledged and endorsed in all industrialised economies. However, its role has not been articulated or theorised by either the design world or the discipline of development studies. It is this deficiency that TCG wants to address.
The Group’s aim is to: research into the contribution of design and design education in developing countries; apply the research outcomes through the conduct of “action research projects”; evaluate and disseminate the outcomes of the Group’s work; promote the Group’s aims and outcomes.
It wishes to achieve this by: conducting multidisciplinary projects in partnership with other groups and agencies including those based in developing countries; organising conferences, seminars and workshops; influencing policy and decision-makers in development and developing contexts; collecting and publishing examples of validated research and case studies of practice in the field; providing means of communication for academics and practitioners.
The Group has sought project funding, but so far, without success. Coward [interview: 2004] points out, “We do not have any specific project funding as TCG. Members have worked on projects for which they have secured funding as individuals. These range from projects in developing countries to conference papers and case studies.”
At present, the Group is awaiting response to a proposal submitted to EPSRC and AHRB on the “Designing for the 21st Century”. If successful, this will help fund the development of a “Cluster” whose aims and objectives are very similar to those of TCG.
The Group has subsequently been joined by John Ballyn, an independent design consultant, whose interest in TCG was “to promote the use of design processes by non-designers as part of market development packages for artisans and entrepreneurs” [interview: 2004]. Prior to this, he was working with crafts enterprises in the developing countries, developing training material for distribution to producers. He feels, “it is very important to share and debate methodologies and processes when working in such a field” [Ibid].
Rob Aley, a designer craftsman and candle-maker, is also one of the original members responsible for the formation of TCG. He used to be associated with the Intermediate Technology Development Group, but is now an independent consultant on development educational projects.
Under the supervision of the members, TCG has participated in seminars in Bangalore in India and Gregynog in Mid-Wales, presenting papers on design in development to students and academics of development studies. Individual TCG members have also participated in events in Southern Africa.
Disclaimer: The views expressed in the interview are not necessarily those of The Cardiff Group, but that of the individual members.
The focus of interest of the Group is the exploration and articulation of the relationships between design and development, in any global context but particularly in low-income economies. The process of design is considered by the members to be more important than the artefact produced. They believe that design is an essential ingredient in the production of all commodities, management systems and services, and this fact is acknowledged and endorsed in all industrialised economies. However, its role has not been articulated or theorised by either the design world or the discipline of development studies. It is this deficiency that TCG wants to address.
The Group’s aim is to: research into the contribution of design and design education in developing countries; apply the research outcomes through the conduct of “action research projects”; evaluate and disseminate the outcomes of the Group’s work; promote the Group’s aims and outcomes.
It wishes to achieve this by: conducting multidisciplinary projects in partnership with other groups and agencies including those based in developing countries; organising conferences, seminars and workshops; influencing policy and decision-makers in development and developing contexts; collecting and publishing examples of validated research and case studies of practice in the field; providing means of communication for academics and practitioners.
The Group has sought project funding, but so far, without success. Coward [interview: 2004] points out, “We do not have any specific project funding as TCG. Members have worked on projects for which they have secured funding as individuals. These range from projects in developing countries to conference papers and case studies.”
At present, the Group is awaiting response to a proposal submitted to EPSRC and AHRB on the “Designing for the 21st Century”. If successful, this will help fund the development of a “Cluster” whose aims and objectives are very similar to those of TCG.
The Group has subsequently been joined by John Ballyn, an independent design consultant, whose interest in TCG was “to promote the use of design processes by non-designers as part of market development packages for artisans and entrepreneurs” [interview: 2004]. Prior to this, he was working with crafts enterprises in the developing countries, developing training material for distribution to producers. He feels, “it is very important to share and debate methodologies and processes when working in such a field” [Ibid].
Rob Aley, a designer craftsman and candle-maker, is also one of the original members responsible for the formation of TCG. He used to be associated with the Intermediate Technology Development Group, but is now an independent consultant on development educational projects.
Under the supervision of the members, TCG has participated in seminars in Bangalore in India and Gregynog in Mid-Wales, presenting papers on design in development to students and academics of development studies. Individual TCG members have also participated in events in Southern Africa.
Disclaimer: The views expressed in the interview are not necessarily those of The Cardiff Group, but that of the individual members.
3.1.4 MEDIA VERSUS FACE-TO-FACE
The respondents were asked to identify the best communications strategy among the three primary ones. In addition, they were asked whether they would identify particular strategies with particular projects. The following is an analysis of their responses.
From her personal experiences in communications and project management in the field of HIV/AIDS, Dey [interview: 2004] thinks that a combination of all the above mentioned strategies is likely to make the desired impact. But if that does not seem feasible, then the best strategy would be to use popular and mass media since visual learning always has an effect.
“Mass media or IEC (Information, Education and Communication) as well as gradual persuasion usually work. But if the motive is not just to persuade but to also change behaviour, then BCC (Behaviour Change Communication) would be more effective” [Ibid]. For example, if one wishes to address issues on HIV/AIDS, then IEC is a good strategy. But if one wishes to promote the use of condoms among CSWs (Commercial Sex-Workers) and their clients, then BCC is ideal. Besides posters, pamphlets and hoardings, BCC also uses theatre, plays, documentaries as well as short ad-films to convey the message.
But, Smyth [interview: 2004] thinks that the choice of the strategy depends on the communication target group. For example, campaigns and media work well for the general public (but this also differs as per the literacy level of the public); while workshops and seminars are successful with staff and partners.
Similarly, Hewitt [interview: 2004] also agrees that the choice of communications strategy depends on the project objectives — the audience to be reached and the kind of things to be communicated. Campaigns can be successful when there is a wide participation. A good example of this is the campaign against the Multilateral Agreement on Investment which involved civil society organisations from around the world putting pressure on international organisations such as WTO and different governments; pamphlets seem to me to be just a subset of some broader campaign strategy; workshops generally involve too much talking and not enough doing, but they are a good way of getting people together to share and discuss information. And, theatre as a way of communicating can be most effective and fun too when working with children (for example in child-to-child work, see http://www.child-to-child.org/). Mass media, almost by definition, is effective for reaching a wider audience. But then, television’s effectiveness depends on where you are (accessibility) and who you are (who controls it). For example, in Brazil, the transmission of Rede Globo reaches virtually every corner of a huge country. But, what is communicated is often dubious. On the contrary, radio is a great medium for getting across messages on healthcare, environment, social justice and other issues. Its influence has been remarkable in many parts of the African continent [Ibid].
Hewitt believes that particular strategies need to be tailor-made for particular projects. For example, to circulate its information, CRIN uses different strategies for different clients. Where there is accessibility, it uses the internet; but in other places, it uses printed material through the postal service for dissemination of information on child rights to member organisations.
From her personal experiences in communications and project management in the field of HIV/AIDS, Dey [interview: 2004] thinks that a combination of all the above mentioned strategies is likely to make the desired impact. But if that does not seem feasible, then the best strategy would be to use popular and mass media since visual learning always has an effect.
“Mass media or IEC (Information, Education and Communication) as well as gradual persuasion usually work. But if the motive is not just to persuade but to also change behaviour, then BCC (Behaviour Change Communication) would be more effective” [Ibid]. For example, if one wishes to address issues on HIV/AIDS, then IEC is a good strategy. But if one wishes to promote the use of condoms among CSWs (Commercial Sex-Workers) and their clients, then BCC is ideal. Besides posters, pamphlets and hoardings, BCC also uses theatre, plays, documentaries as well as short ad-films to convey the message.
But, Smyth [interview: 2004] thinks that the choice of the strategy depends on the communication target group. For example, campaigns and media work well for the general public (but this also differs as per the literacy level of the public); while workshops and seminars are successful with staff and partners.
Similarly, Hewitt [interview: 2004] also agrees that the choice of communications strategy depends on the project objectives — the audience to be reached and the kind of things to be communicated. Campaigns can be successful when there is a wide participation. A good example of this is the campaign against the Multilateral Agreement on Investment which involved civil society organisations from around the world putting pressure on international organisations such as WTO and different governments; pamphlets seem to me to be just a subset of some broader campaign strategy; workshops generally involve too much talking and not enough doing, but they are a good way of getting people together to share and discuss information. And, theatre as a way of communicating can be most effective and fun too when working with children (for example in child-to-child work, see http://www.child-to-child.org/). Mass media, almost by definition, is effective for reaching a wider audience. But then, television’s effectiveness depends on where you are (accessibility) and who you are (who controls it). For example, in Brazil, the transmission of Rede Globo reaches virtually every corner of a huge country. But, what is communicated is often dubious. On the contrary, radio is a great medium for getting across messages on healthcare, environment, social justice and other issues. Its influence has been remarkable in many parts of the African continent [Ibid].
Hewitt believes that particular strategies need to be tailor-made for particular projects. For example, to circulate its information, CRIN uses different strategies for different clients. Where there is accessibility, it uses the internet; but in other places, it uses printed material through the postal service for dissemination of information on child rights to member organisations.
3.2 RE-ANALYSING THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
3.2.1 What are the reasons for the success or failure of communication for development?
Coward says that lack of initial funding is the prime problem that needs to be dealt with. Once the initial project funding has been secured, the worker can move on to other issues. Thomas [interview: 2004] echoes that the lack of basic resources, namely funding and efficient man-power, are the decisive factors. Besides, the objectives are often not sorted out well enough and so are unsustainable. “Interventions are made with the best of intentions, but are seldom appropriate” [Ibid].
Ballyn feels that the realities in the world make it increasingly challenging for those in need to have their problems resolved. Professionals often use jargons such as ‘beneficiaries’ “to reassure beneficiaries of development aid that their needs are being respected”. This gives the target population a wrong impression which can affect communication between the message sender and the receiver. Politics such as these — from the grassroots to the national and international arena — can make or break a project and its objectives.
He cites an example recorded by the Crafts Revival Trust in India. There are about 30,000 colleges of design of variable quality in India and it is part of the curriculum for the students to go on a compulsory research visit to the crafts-making communities. The struggling-to-survive artisans, in turn, are promised that they would receive better facilities and training from such studies. But no such benefit seems to come their way. On the contrary, they get tired and impatient of the endless stream of students with their repetitive questions and the never-ending surveys. As such, “trust is being eroded faster than it can be restored”.
On the other hand, Dey says that there are three specific reasons why a project fails and along with it, any attempt at communication. Firstly, some developmental projects fail because they make the mistake of blindly adopting the strategies which were successful in some other country. Secondly, most projects have objectives which are difficult to sustain. Thirdly, consistent flow of funding is also a major problem. So, Dey suggests that the objectives should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-bound). This will ensure the success of development communication to an extent that the planners will know what to talk about.
At the cost of sounding “slightly jaded”, Hewitt points out that the objectives are “not well defined in the first place, and are also insufficiently resourced”. A ‘development project’ by definition implies a time-bound, issue-based set of activities. As such, they do not have a life-span long enough to see any concrete and lasting outcomes. “The project winds up, the experts go home, and little or nothing sticks – change generally takes much longer than a year or two to be evident” [Hewitt].
But Aley [interview: 2004] puts it simply yet effectively when he says that a development communication strategy is successful if the level of communication depends on who you are communicating with. For example, community level workers will use simpler ways of getting their message across with the rural population of a developing country as compared to the population of a technologically-advanced country with a reasonably high level of education.
To sum up, communication for development can be improved by ensuring proper and consistent flow of funds, avoiding use of jargons and thereby keeping away from politics, formulating well-defined and achievable objectives, and adopting innovative and creative strategies and approaches to communicate the desired messages.
Coward says that lack of initial funding is the prime problem that needs to be dealt with. Once the initial project funding has been secured, the worker can move on to other issues. Thomas [interview: 2004] echoes that the lack of basic resources, namely funding and efficient man-power, are the decisive factors. Besides, the objectives are often not sorted out well enough and so are unsustainable. “Interventions are made with the best of intentions, but are seldom appropriate” [Ibid].
Ballyn feels that the realities in the world make it increasingly challenging for those in need to have their problems resolved. Professionals often use jargons such as ‘beneficiaries’ “to reassure beneficiaries of development aid that their needs are being respected”. This gives the target population a wrong impression which can affect communication between the message sender and the receiver. Politics such as these — from the grassroots to the national and international arena — can make or break a project and its objectives.
He cites an example recorded by the Crafts Revival Trust in India. There are about 30,000 colleges of design of variable quality in India and it is part of the curriculum for the students to go on a compulsory research visit to the crafts-making communities. The struggling-to-survive artisans, in turn, are promised that they would receive better facilities and training from such studies. But no such benefit seems to come their way. On the contrary, they get tired and impatient of the endless stream of students with their repetitive questions and the never-ending surveys. As such, “trust is being eroded faster than it can be restored”.
On the other hand, Dey says that there are three specific reasons why a project fails and along with it, any attempt at communication. Firstly, some developmental projects fail because they make the mistake of blindly adopting the strategies which were successful in some other country. Secondly, most projects have objectives which are difficult to sustain. Thirdly, consistent flow of funding is also a major problem. So, Dey suggests that the objectives should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-bound). This will ensure the success of development communication to an extent that the planners will know what to talk about.
At the cost of sounding “slightly jaded”, Hewitt points out that the objectives are “not well defined in the first place, and are also insufficiently resourced”. A ‘development project’ by definition implies a time-bound, issue-based set of activities. As such, they do not have a life-span long enough to see any concrete and lasting outcomes. “The project winds up, the experts go home, and little or nothing sticks – change generally takes much longer than a year or two to be evident” [Hewitt].
But Aley [interview: 2004] puts it simply yet effectively when he says that a development communication strategy is successful if the level of communication depends on who you are communicating with. For example, community level workers will use simpler ways of getting their message across with the rural population of a developing country as compared to the population of a technologically-advanced country with a reasonably high level of education.
To sum up, communication for development can be improved by ensuring proper and consistent flow of funds, avoiding use of jargons and thereby keeping away from politics, formulating well-defined and achievable objectives, and adopting innovative and creative strategies and approaches to communicate the desired messages.
3.2.2 What can be done to make it more effective?
Ballyn suggests that the communication process should be carefully planned after detailed surveys and meetings with the receivers within their own space to identify their own requirements. At the same time, the receivers should be trained to take up some responsibility in the implementation of the project as well as identify management deficiencies perceived by and within the community. Safeguards should be built to prevent people in authority from misusing their power or be discriminatory towards certain sections of the population. This will not only facilitate a free-flowing two-way communication, but also ensure equitable distribution of the development process.
Communication can also get stifled when it comes to issues such as funding and evaluation. As such, each stage should be reviewed and analysed, to rectify any unforeseen errors and omissions. Training should also be provided to the receivers on financial management, so that they can themselves monitor the expenses and income.
At the end of the project, there should be a final evaluation by the community as such, which should be followed by subsequent evaluations at regular intervals. Ballyn points out that this is more essential in a design project for market development. After the project has been implemented, the manufacturing enterprise should monitor the sale of new designs every two years. “The resulting figures will provide a useful starting point to review how much of the design and marketing process training has been used, and raise questions about their true value to the producer,” he says.
On a similar note, Dey suggests a CNA (Communication Needs Assessment) among the target group, so that they can identify key messages, issues and preferred modes of communication that need to be addressed. Then, prototypes of the same should be prepared and field tested, and changes can be incorporated if necessary. It is also advisable to use resources available within the community. In this way, a communication plan can be chalked out that is user-friendly.
Dey also points out that a successful project is one which has complete community participation and ownership. Hand-holding is fine for a while, but it cannot go on forever. At the end of the tenure once the project planners move away, the community should be able to continue the good practices.
She cites the example of an RCH (Reproductive and Child Health) program in West Bengal, India, where doctors tried to ensure that pregnant women took iron pills regularly. CARE, the NGO funding this project, decided to use mats wherein the women were asked to put one cross-stitch for every pill they took. This helped them to not only keep track of the number of pills they consumed, but also ensured that they don't skip any. At the end of the month, a nice patterned mat was ready which the women could use in their homes. “This was a very good strategy and worked beautifully. Such innovative methods are desirable,” she says.
Hewitt opines that what really helps is (if you have enough resources) to make the information products more regionally focused and, therefore, more relevant to specific categories of user. This should be supplemented by well-defined, realistic and measurable objectives; only then you can tell whether a project has been a success or not with some certainty.
The project should also be “fit for the purpose”. Hewitt points out, “you may design an excellent and informative new website on child rights, but if your audience does not have good access to the internet, it isn’t fit for the purpose.”
Another method of ensuring efficacy of a communications project is to measure how much the participants have learned from it. He says, “it is not knowing what you know but knowing which questions to ask (or knowing what you don’t know); or to put it in another way, seeing what is there in front of you rather than looking for what you want to see.” As Thomas puts it: “A successful project is one in which the participants are more capable; it should be able to improve their lot.”
But Smyth has a completely innovative suggestion to make. She says that most developmental projects do not consider communication to be an important aspect at all. So, perhaps the best way to deal with this is to think of all projects as “an opportunity to communicate our purposes to those we are trying to influence” — the public, the leaders, the policy-makers et al.
Thus, we can say that an effective development communication programme entails detailed surveys and frequent meetings with the receivers for a CNA, prevention of misuse of power and funds, evaluation of each stage and subsequent omission of errors, relating the information products to the users and thereby making the project fit for the purpose, and ensuring complete participation of the community.
Communication can also get stifled when it comes to issues such as funding and evaluation. As such, each stage should be reviewed and analysed, to rectify any unforeseen errors and omissions. Training should also be provided to the receivers on financial management, so that they can themselves monitor the expenses and income.
At the end of the project, there should be a final evaluation by the community as such, which should be followed by subsequent evaluations at regular intervals. Ballyn points out that this is more essential in a design project for market development. After the project has been implemented, the manufacturing enterprise should monitor the sale of new designs every two years. “The resulting figures will provide a useful starting point to review how much of the design and marketing process training has been used, and raise questions about their true value to the producer,” he says.
On a similar note, Dey suggests a CNA (Communication Needs Assessment) among the target group, so that they can identify key messages, issues and preferred modes of communication that need to be addressed. Then, prototypes of the same should be prepared and field tested, and changes can be incorporated if necessary. It is also advisable to use resources available within the community. In this way, a communication plan can be chalked out that is user-friendly.
Dey also points out that a successful project is one which has complete community participation and ownership. Hand-holding is fine for a while, but it cannot go on forever. At the end of the tenure once the project planners move away, the community should be able to continue the good practices.
She cites the example of an RCH (Reproductive and Child Health) program in West Bengal, India, where doctors tried to ensure that pregnant women took iron pills regularly. CARE, the NGO funding this project, decided to use mats wherein the women were asked to put one cross-stitch for every pill they took. This helped them to not only keep track of the number of pills they consumed, but also ensured that they don't skip any. At the end of the month, a nice patterned mat was ready which the women could use in their homes. “This was a very good strategy and worked beautifully. Such innovative methods are desirable,” she says.
Hewitt opines that what really helps is (if you have enough resources) to make the information products more regionally focused and, therefore, more relevant to specific categories of user. This should be supplemented by well-defined, realistic and measurable objectives; only then you can tell whether a project has been a success or not with some certainty.
The project should also be “fit for the purpose”. Hewitt points out, “you may design an excellent and informative new website on child rights, but if your audience does not have good access to the internet, it isn’t fit for the purpose.”
Another method of ensuring efficacy of a communications project is to measure how much the participants have learned from it. He says, “it is not knowing what you know but knowing which questions to ask (or knowing what you don’t know); or to put it in another way, seeing what is there in front of you rather than looking for what you want to see.” As Thomas puts it: “A successful project is one in which the participants are more capable; it should be able to improve their lot.”
But Smyth has a completely innovative suggestion to make. She says that most developmental projects do not consider communication to be an important aspect at all. So, perhaps the best way to deal with this is to think of all projects as “an opportunity to communicate our purposes to those we are trying to influence” — the public, the leaders, the policy-makers et al.
Thus, we can say that an effective development communication programme entails detailed surveys and frequent meetings with the receivers for a CNA, prevention of misuse of power and funds, evaluation of each stage and subsequent omission of errors, relating the information products to the users and thereby making the project fit for the purpose, and ensuring complete participation of the community.
3.2.3 What is the influence of the cultural context? How can media campaign be used to realize the objective of development communication?
Coward feels that it is the educational (defined as indigenous knowledge) and cultural identity of a community that forms the basis of the communication strategy. They are, in fact, the underlying principles that guide our approach to development which varies from case to case.
Ballyn goes on to explain that each culture has its own folklore, sense of importance and ways of teaching and learning, values and perceptions of their status in the community. “While it is not necessary to use the local customs as methodologies, it is very useful to try and learn about such cultural issues and sensitivities in order to find easily comprehensible ways to explain technology or processes” [Ballyn].
Ballyn makes an interesting observation here. He says that every culture as an entertaining and instructional character such as the mythical Islamic Sufi Mullah Nasruddin . He could be named Til Eulenspiegel in Germany or Afanti da Gusha and Nasi Ur Din in different regions of China, but everywhere he goes around routinely puncturing the egos of the pretentious and mocking the bigot to get his message across to one and all. “There is a method in Nasruddin’s madness” [Ibid] and that is what the development communicator needs to unearth.
In many cases, the nature of development procedures are so distorted by bureaucratic regulatory nature and formulaic jargon that fear or displeasure are possibly the most common emotions expressed by the target community. Using local cultural metaphors and humour, and learning which local taboos to avoid and which to exploit can be regarded as useful tools for the development officer. It also helps to be as warm, open, honest and humorous as possible towards the host community.
But Hewitt feels that education and culture does matter but not as much as is sometimes claimed. People tend to get very hung up on cultural differences to the point where they fail to see common ground and common sense. Perhaps this is one of the problems that the Western countries face when communicating their developmental ideas to the developing world.
There are definitely differences between countries, not to mention continents, and the most obvious one being language. For example, in Latin America you cannot reach a large audience unless you work in Spanish or Portuguese, and in Africa you have a much bigger diversity to deal with. To reach a wider user-base, Microsoft has of late come out with an operating system in Swahili along with a handful of other languages.
Smyth emphasises on the level of education because “there is no point introducing written material for people who cannot read” [interview: 2004]. Language is also important, she says, because a pun in one language may make no sense when translated to another language. The same applies to images and symbols, which have different meanings or acceptability in different cultures.
Therefore, to conclude, it helps to learn about local cultural issues — metaphors and humours — and ways of teaching and learning in a particular community, besides mastering their language, in order to establish contact with the target audience. And, it is the responsibility of the media to respond sensitively, sensibly, and knowledgably to the exigencies of the situation. Only then can the communication process be effective.
Ballyn goes on to explain that each culture has its own folklore, sense of importance and ways of teaching and learning, values and perceptions of their status in the community. “While it is not necessary to use the local customs as methodologies, it is very useful to try and learn about such cultural issues and sensitivities in order to find easily comprehensible ways to explain technology or processes” [Ballyn].
Ballyn makes an interesting observation here. He says that every culture as an entertaining and instructional character such as the mythical Islamic Sufi Mullah Nasruddin . He could be named Til Eulenspiegel in Germany or Afanti da Gusha and Nasi Ur Din in different regions of China, but everywhere he goes around routinely puncturing the egos of the pretentious and mocking the bigot to get his message across to one and all. “There is a method in Nasruddin’s madness” [Ibid] and that is what the development communicator needs to unearth.
In many cases, the nature of development procedures are so distorted by bureaucratic regulatory nature and formulaic jargon that fear or displeasure are possibly the most common emotions expressed by the target community. Using local cultural metaphors and humour, and learning which local taboos to avoid and which to exploit can be regarded as useful tools for the development officer. It also helps to be as warm, open, honest and humorous as possible towards the host community.
But Hewitt feels that education and culture does matter but not as much as is sometimes claimed. People tend to get very hung up on cultural differences to the point where they fail to see common ground and common sense. Perhaps this is one of the problems that the Western countries face when communicating their developmental ideas to the developing world.
There are definitely differences between countries, not to mention continents, and the most obvious one being language. For example, in Latin America you cannot reach a large audience unless you work in Spanish or Portuguese, and in Africa you have a much bigger diversity to deal with. To reach a wider user-base, Microsoft has of late come out with an operating system in Swahili along with a handful of other languages.
Smyth emphasises on the level of education because “there is no point introducing written material for people who cannot read” [interview: 2004]. Language is also important, she says, because a pun in one language may make no sense when translated to another language. The same applies to images and symbols, which have different meanings or acceptability in different cultures.
Therefore, to conclude, it helps to learn about local cultural issues — metaphors and humours — and ways of teaching and learning in a particular community, besides mastering their language, in order to establish contact with the target audience. And, it is the responsibility of the media to respond sensitively, sensibly, and knowledgably to the exigencies of the situation. Only then can the communication process be effective.
3.3 WHAT CAN BE AN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION POLICY FOR TCG?
From the above, we can get a fair idea of the strategies and policies that TCG needs to adopt in order to make a success of its objectives. In fact, in their individual capacity, the TCG members did come up with a few suggestions that can help them reach their objectives.
Ballyn is hopeful that TCG can undertake some project work and gain experience in developmental work. The experiences could be analysed and circulated to interested parties, or presented at seminars and conferences to attract a wider membership. The ensuing debates and discussions would bring forth any weaknesses in TCG proposals.
In fact, he did attempt to establish projects which would involve TCG in the utilisation of design processes. He tried to establish contact with colleges of art and design education institutions in Kyrgyzstan and Romania, to explore the potential for collaboration between those academies and similar educational establishments in the UK. “Having stated that there was no money currently available, it was suggested that a project could be drafted and TCG members could source funds through their own contacts. Reciprocal visits as well as student exchange programmes were suggested as long-term collaborations” [Ballyn, interview: 2004]. But, sadly enough, neither academy has responded.
Coward, on the other hand, is more interested in identifying suitable case studies and researching them because he feels that would help realise the original aims and objectives of the Group to a significant extent. He has identified a major role for the Internet — to disseminate the Group’s work and interests — and thus act as a development tool. And, when they have some exemplar project, they will target funding bodies, including government organisations, NGOs, foundations and charities.
However, the Internet cannot be considered to be a tool for development communication, as most of the developmental projects are targeted at the rural population where there is no access to the Internet whatsoever.
But, Aley says that TCG had started as an organisation of like-minded people interested in a particular cause, but it doesn’t have a clear message and is still very premature. Attending conferences and submitting papers would entail sharing ideas with the academia and catering to a richer audience. But, what is ideally required is a direct impact on the poor segments of the society. Talking about it will not have a positive impact on the target population. Instead, the Group should conduct some sort of training courses to convey ideas about creativity, formulate mini syllabuses to teach design to the developing population and come up with ideas on how craftsmen can market their products.
Thus, Aley’s recommendations appear to be more practical. In addition to those, an effective communication policy for TCG would entail:
• Adopting SMART objectives; it means that they should be Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-bound
• Conducting a proper feed-forward on the target population (in this case, the indigenous producers of designs) to facilitate participatory communication; and using innovative methods to involve the people in all aspects of decision-making, implementation and evaluation of the project
• Using different strategies to generate awareness among different target groups in the same project. For example, use of campaigns and media to reach the general public (that is the local designers), but workshops and seminars for staff and partners (e.g. the funding bodies)
• Having clear-cut notions about funding and evaluation by following a CNA (Communication Needs Assessment) programme to ensure a user-friendly communication plan
• Evaluating whether the target group (the design producers) has learnt to modify its behaviour in keeping with the message communicated, so that they can sustain such changes once the project team has left the site
• And last but not the least, avoiding the use of jargons at all times so that the target group does not get a wrong impression
Ballyn is hopeful that TCG can undertake some project work and gain experience in developmental work. The experiences could be analysed and circulated to interested parties, or presented at seminars and conferences to attract a wider membership. The ensuing debates and discussions would bring forth any weaknesses in TCG proposals.
In fact, he did attempt to establish projects which would involve TCG in the utilisation of design processes. He tried to establish contact with colleges of art and design education institutions in Kyrgyzstan and Romania, to explore the potential for collaboration between those academies and similar educational establishments in the UK. “Having stated that there was no money currently available, it was suggested that a project could be drafted and TCG members could source funds through their own contacts. Reciprocal visits as well as student exchange programmes were suggested as long-term collaborations” [Ballyn, interview: 2004]. But, sadly enough, neither academy has responded.
Coward, on the other hand, is more interested in identifying suitable case studies and researching them because he feels that would help realise the original aims and objectives of the Group to a significant extent. He has identified a major role for the Internet — to disseminate the Group’s work and interests — and thus act as a development tool. And, when they have some exemplar project, they will target funding bodies, including government organisations, NGOs, foundations and charities.
However, the Internet cannot be considered to be a tool for development communication, as most of the developmental projects are targeted at the rural population where there is no access to the Internet whatsoever.
But, Aley says that TCG had started as an organisation of like-minded people interested in a particular cause, but it doesn’t have a clear message and is still very premature. Attending conferences and submitting papers would entail sharing ideas with the academia and catering to a richer audience. But, what is ideally required is a direct impact on the poor segments of the society. Talking about it will not have a positive impact on the target population. Instead, the Group should conduct some sort of training courses to convey ideas about creativity, formulate mini syllabuses to teach design to the developing population and come up with ideas on how craftsmen can market their products.
Thus, Aley’s recommendations appear to be more practical. In addition to those, an effective communication policy for TCG would entail:
• Adopting SMART objectives; it means that they should be Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-bound
• Conducting a proper feed-forward on the target population (in this case, the indigenous producers of designs) to facilitate participatory communication; and using innovative methods to involve the people in all aspects of decision-making, implementation and evaluation of the project
• Using different strategies to generate awareness among different target groups in the same project. For example, use of campaigns and media to reach the general public (that is the local designers), but workshops and seminars for staff and partners (e.g. the funding bodies)
• Having clear-cut notions about funding and evaluation by following a CNA (Communication Needs Assessment) programme to ensure a user-friendly communication plan
• Evaluating whether the target group (the design producers) has learnt to modify its behaviour in keeping with the message communicated, so that they can sustain such changes once the project team has left the site
• And last but not the least, avoiding the use of jargons at all times so that the target group does not get a wrong impression
4. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
This dissertation had set out to research the objectives, strategies and outcomes of communication for development. It started with tracing the roots of the concept and went on to define it, thereby deriving the objectives of development communication. Following this, it identified the three main strategies by which development communication can be achieved, coming to the conclusion that a combination of all the strategies is the best approach to adopt.
Thereafter, an analysis of the research questions and the empirical study on TCG, yielded the following outcomes:
Reasons for failure of communication for development constitute: communication gap between the North and the South, unrealistic and ill-defined objectives, blind adoption of communication strategies, inadequate and inconsistent funding.
To make it successful and effective, the communication planner requires: detailed feed-forward and feedback for proper CNA and also to involve them better in the project, prevent misuse of funds and power, identify the correct communication strategy so that it fits the purpose, and evaluate the strategy outcomes at regular intervals.
The influence of the cultural context is important, because the cultural exchange between the sender and the receiver of a message determines the outcome of a campaign to a big extent. Therefore, media campaign should be focussed on responding sensitively and sensibly to the cultural issues of the target community.
However, during the course of the research, it was found that there are certain gaps in the literature on this field. Although considerable work is being done on participatory communication, there is scope to do further research on:
• What are the pre-requisites of a community where participatory communication would be most effective?
• What qualities should a communication planner possess to involve in participatory communication?
Thereafter, an analysis of the research questions and the empirical study on TCG, yielded the following outcomes:
Reasons for failure of communication for development constitute: communication gap between the North and the South, unrealistic and ill-defined objectives, blind adoption of communication strategies, inadequate and inconsistent funding.
To make it successful and effective, the communication planner requires: detailed feed-forward and feedback for proper CNA and also to involve them better in the project, prevent misuse of funds and power, identify the correct communication strategy so that it fits the purpose, and evaluate the strategy outcomes at regular intervals.
The influence of the cultural context is important, because the cultural exchange between the sender and the receiver of a message determines the outcome of a campaign to a big extent. Therefore, media campaign should be focussed on responding sensitively and sensibly to the cultural issues of the target community.
However, during the course of the research, it was found that there are certain gaps in the literature on this field. Although considerable work is being done on participatory communication, there is scope to do further research on:
• What are the pre-requisites of a community where participatory communication would be most effective?
• What qualities should a communication planner possess to involve in participatory communication?
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Boeren, Ad and Epskamp, Kees (ed) The Empowerment of Culture: development communication and popular media; Den Haag: Centre for the Study of Education in Developing Countries, 1992
Blumler, Jay G. and Katz, Elihu (ed) The Uses of Mass Communications: current perspectives on gratifications research; Beverly Hills, London: Sage Publications, 1974
Bryant, Jennings and Zillmann, Dolf (ed) Media Effects: advances in theory and research; Hillsdale, N.J.; Hove: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1994
Casmir, Fred L. (ed) Communication in Development; Norwood, N.J: Ablex, 1991
Cernea, Michael M. (ed) Putting People First: sociological variables in rural development; New York, Oxford: Published for the World Bank [by] Oxford University Press, 1991
Fiske, John Introduction to Communication Studies, London: Routledge, 1990
Gregory, Anne Planning and Managing Public Relations Campaigns; London: Kogan Page, 2000
Griffin, Em A First Look at Communication Theory, Chap on Cognitive Dissonance Theory; McGraw-Hill Inc., 1997
Hyman, Herbert H. Interviewing in Social Research; Chicago: Chicago U.P.; Cambridge: Cambridge U.P, 1954
Jones, Russell A. Research Methods in the Social and Behavioral Sciences Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, 1996
McQuail, Denis Audience Analysis; Thousand Oaks, Calif.; London: Sage Publications, 1997
McQuail, Denis McQuail's Mass Communication Theory, London: Sage Publications, 2000
Reardon, Kathleen Kelley Persuasion in Practice; Newbury Park, London: Sage Publications, 1991
Saunders, Mark, Lewis, Philip and Thornhill, Adrian Research Methods For Business Students Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003
Severin, Werner J. and Tankard, James W., Jr. Communication Theories: origins, methods and uses in the mass media; New York, London: Longman, 1997
Windahl, Sven and Signitzer, Benno H. with Olson, Jean T. Using Communication Theory: an introduction to planned communication; London: Sage, 1992
JOURNALS
Aggarwala, N.K, ‘What is Development News?’ Journal of Communication, Vol. 29, spring, 1979
Hyman, Herbert H. and Sheatsley, Paul B. ‘Some Reasons Why Information Campaigns Fail’ Public Opinion Quarterly, volume 11, 1947
Jacobson, Thomas L and Storey, J. Douglas ‘Development Communication and Participation: Applying Habermas to a Case Study of Population Programs in Nepal’, Communication Theory, Vol. 14, May 2004
Mendelson, H. ‘Some Reasons Why Information Campaigns Can Succeed’, Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 37, no. 2, summer 1973
Morris, Nancy ‘A Comparative Analysis of the Diffusion and Participatory Models in Development Communication’ in International Communication Association, May 2003
WEB ARTICLES
Article by Chin Saik Yoon at
http://www.southbound.com.my/communication/parcom.htm
Article by Chris Paterson at
www.museum.tv/archives/etv/D/htmlD/developmentc/developmentc.htm
Article by Isang Bagsak at
http://www.comminit.com/planningmodels/pmodels/planningmodels-55.html
The World Bank group’s website
www.worldbank.org/developmentcommunications/
http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/ MUHome/cshtml/media/efterms.html
http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/ MUHome/cshtml/media/efterms.html
http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary. com/Development%20communication
http://ethnodata.com/content.php?id=14
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3133947.stm
http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/interpersonal/
http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/aids/News/abcfactsheet.html
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A13501-2004Jun28.html
REPORTS
Report by Ministry of Health, Government of India, 2004
TCG, Design and Development, seminar proceedings, July11-12, 2001, Cardiff
Boeren, Ad and Epskamp, Kees (ed) The Empowerment of Culture: development communication and popular media; Den Haag: Centre for the Study of Education in Developing Countries, 1992
Blumler, Jay G. and Katz, Elihu (ed) The Uses of Mass Communications: current perspectives on gratifications research; Beverly Hills, London: Sage Publications, 1974
Bryant, Jennings and Zillmann, Dolf (ed) Media Effects: advances in theory and research; Hillsdale, N.J.; Hove: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1994
Casmir, Fred L. (ed) Communication in Development; Norwood, N.J: Ablex, 1991
Cernea, Michael M. (ed) Putting People First: sociological variables in rural development; New York, Oxford: Published for the World Bank [by] Oxford University Press, 1991
Fiske, John Introduction to Communication Studies, London: Routledge, 1990
Gregory, Anne Planning and Managing Public Relations Campaigns; London: Kogan Page, 2000
Griffin, Em A First Look at Communication Theory, Chap on Cognitive Dissonance Theory; McGraw-Hill Inc., 1997
Hyman, Herbert H. Interviewing in Social Research; Chicago: Chicago U.P.; Cambridge: Cambridge U.P, 1954
Jones, Russell A. Research Methods in the Social and Behavioral Sciences Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, 1996
McQuail, Denis Audience Analysis; Thousand Oaks, Calif.; London: Sage Publications, 1997
McQuail, Denis McQuail's Mass Communication Theory, London: Sage Publications, 2000
Reardon, Kathleen Kelley Persuasion in Practice; Newbury Park, London: Sage Publications, 1991
Saunders, Mark, Lewis, Philip and Thornhill, Adrian Research Methods For Business Students Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003
Severin, Werner J. and Tankard, James W., Jr. Communication Theories: origins, methods and uses in the mass media; New York, London: Longman, 1997
Windahl, Sven and Signitzer, Benno H. with Olson, Jean T. Using Communication Theory: an introduction to planned communication; London: Sage, 1992
JOURNALS
Aggarwala, N.K, ‘What is Development News?’ Journal of Communication, Vol. 29, spring, 1979
Hyman, Herbert H. and Sheatsley, Paul B. ‘Some Reasons Why Information Campaigns Fail’ Public Opinion Quarterly, volume 11, 1947
Jacobson, Thomas L and Storey, J. Douglas ‘Development Communication and Participation: Applying Habermas to a Case Study of Population Programs in Nepal’, Communication Theory, Vol. 14, May 2004
Mendelson, H. ‘Some Reasons Why Information Campaigns Can Succeed’, Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 37, no. 2, summer 1973
Morris, Nancy ‘A Comparative Analysis of the Diffusion and Participatory Models in Development Communication’ in International Communication Association, May 2003
WEB ARTICLES
Article by Chin Saik Yoon at
http://www.southbound.com.my/communication/parcom.htm
Article by Chris Paterson at
www.museum.tv/archives/etv/D/htmlD/developmentc/developmentc.htm
Article by Isang Bagsak at
http://www.comminit.com/planningmodels/pmodels/planningmodels-55.html
The World Bank group’s website
www.worldbank.org/developmentcommunications/
http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/ MUHome/cshtml/media/efterms.html
http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/ MUHome/cshtml/media/efterms.html
http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary. com/Development%20communication
http://ethnodata.com/content.php?id=14
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3133947.stm
http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/interpersonal/
http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/aids/News/abcfactsheet.html
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A13501-2004Jun28.html
REPORTS
Report by Ministry of Health, Government of India, 2004
TCG, Design and Development, seminar proceedings, July11-12, 2001, Cardiff
6.1 APPENDIX I
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE TCG MEMBERS
1. Why was TCG launched?
2. Are you working on several projects to achieve the objectives of the organisation? What is the present project on and what are its objectives?
3. What communication strategies would you be using — the participatory method, such as pamphlets and workshops; or the diffusion method that includes the popular media, such as theatre and street plays, and the mass media for propaganda and gradual persuasion; or would you use a combination of these?
4. Based on you experiences, how far do you think education and culture matter, say between the Latin American and African countries? Would you be using different communication strategies for different countries? Why?
5. What problems do you anticipate in realising your objectives?
6. How would you define a successful project?
1. Why was TCG launched?
2. Are you working on several projects to achieve the objectives of the organisation? What is the present project on and what are its objectives?
3. What communication strategies would you be using — the participatory method, such as pamphlets and workshops; or the diffusion method that includes the popular media, such as theatre and street plays, and the mass media for propaganda and gradual persuasion; or would you use a combination of these?
4. Based on you experiences, how far do you think education and culture matter, say between the Latin American and African countries? Would you be using different communication strategies for different countries? Why?
5. What problems do you anticipate in realising your objectives?
6. How would you define a successful project?
6.2 Appendix II
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PROFESSIONALS IN THE DEVELOPMENT SECTOR
1. Of the following communication strategies, which do you think is more successful than the others — the participatory method, such as pamphlets and workshops; or the diffusion method that includes the popular media, such as theatre and street plays, and the mass media for propaganda and gradual persuasion; or would you use a combination of these?
2. Would you identify particular strategies with particular projects? Please give examples from your experience.
3. If you are given another chance to work on the same project, what would you do differently?
4. Based on you experiences, how far do you think education and culture matter, say between the Latin American and African countries? Would you be using different communication strategies for different countries? Why?
5. What problems do you anticipate in realising the objectives of developmental projects in general?
6. How would you define a successful project?
1. Of the following communication strategies, which do you think is more successful than the others — the participatory method, such as pamphlets and workshops; or the diffusion method that includes the popular media, such as theatre and street plays, and the mass media for propaganda and gradual persuasion; or would you use a combination of these?
2. Would you identify particular strategies with particular projects? Please give examples from your experience.
3. If you are given another chance to work on the same project, what would you do differently?
4. Based on you experiences, how far do you think education and culture matter, say between the Latin American and African countries? Would you be using different communication strategies for different countries? Why?
5. What problems do you anticipate in realising the objectives of developmental projects in general?
6. How would you define a successful project?
6.2 Appendix III
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ROB ALEY
1. Of the following communication strategies, which do you think is more successful than the others — the participatory method, such as pamphlets and workshops; or the diffusion method that includes the popular media, such as theatre and street plays, and the mass media for propaganda and gradual persuasion; or would you use a combination of these?
2. Based on you experiences, how far do you think education and culture matter, say between the Latin American and African countries? Would you be using different communication strategies for different countries? Why?
3. What problems do you anticipate in realising the objectives of such developmental projects?
4. What communication policy would you suggest for the success of TCG’s objectives?
1. Of the following communication strategies, which do you think is more successful than the others — the participatory method, such as pamphlets and workshops; or the diffusion method that includes the popular media, such as theatre and street plays, and the mass media for propaganda and gradual persuasion; or would you use a combination of these?
2. Based on you experiences, how far do you think education and culture matter, say between the Latin American and African countries? Would you be using different communication strategies for different countries? Why?
3. What problems do you anticipate in realising the objectives of such developmental projects?
4. What communication policy would you suggest for the success of TCG’s objectives?
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